正常大鼠脑CT灌注成像的可重复性研究

目的:评价多层螺旋CT灌注成像对正常大鼠脑血流动力学观测结果的可重复性.方法:分别对10只健康Wistar大鼠间隔2d进行CT灌注扫描,两组原始灌注数据由2名放射科医师分别进行5次后处理得出CBF、CBV和MTT值.分析观察者内和观察者间观测结果的可重复性,以及对同一组研究对象间隔2d两次检查结果的一致性.结果:多层螺旋CT对Wistar大鼠脑所采集的灌注原始数据在观察者内和观察者间观测结果均无统计学差别(P＞0.05),并具有很好的线性(CBF和CBV值)或等级(MTT值)正相关(P＜0.01).对同一组研究对象间隔2d的两次CT灌注成像结果也存在同样好的重复性.结论:多层螺旋CT灌注成像对于Wistar大鼠脑部血流动力学观测具有很高的精密度和准确性,完全适于小型动物模型脑部血流动力学的研究.     

CT灌注评价高碳酸血症模型下正常大鼠脑组织血流动力学变化

目的探讨CT灌注评价高碳酸血症模型下正常大鼠脑组织血流动力学变化的可行性;研究大鼠CT灌注参数变化率与α-SMA表达之间的相关性。方法 10只雄性SD大鼠,体质量250～300g,在吸入空气和吸入高浓度CO2混合气体(10%CO2和90%空气组成)后15min,分别使用GE16层Light Speed CT扫描仪对大鼠脑尾状核层面进行CT灌注扫描,原始图像经GE ADW4.2工作站Perfusion3.0脑部灌注软件处理后产生灌注曲线及伪彩图像,两次扫描前均测定大鼠的血液CO2分压、pH值等血气分析指标。检查结束后24h内,大鼠取脑固定,在尾状核中心层面切片,进行脑组织HE染色及鼠特异性SMA抗体免疫组化染色。应用SPSS11.5统计学软件进行分析:采用配对t检验,比较正常大鼠右侧尾状核在吸入空气和吸入高浓度CO2混合气体后CT灌注参数脑血容量(CBV)、脑血流量(CBF)、血管表面通透性(PS)和平均透过时间(MTT)的变化有无差异;采用Pearson相关分析分别检测大鼠右侧尾状核的SMA阳性血管染色计数与灌注参数CBV和CBF在CO2分压升高前后的变化率相关性。结果所有大鼠在吸入含10%CO2和90%空气的混合气体15min后,动脉血CO2分压均明显升高(t=9.39,P0.001),血浆pH值降低(t=13.49,P0.001)。正常SD大鼠右侧基底节区CBV、CBF、PS每100g组织分别为(10.28±4.01)mL、(304.95±88.77)mL/min、(0.26±0.37)mL/min,MTT值为(1.48±0.07)s;吸入10%CO2和90%空气的混合气体后右侧基底节区CBV、CBF值明显增加,每100g组织分别为(19.25±8.42)mL(t=4.92,P=0.001)和(507.33±167.94)mL/min(t=6.75,P0.001);吸入混合气体前后CBV、CBF增加百分比分别为(87.14±46.45)%、(65.75±22.05)%;PS及MTT变化不显著(P均0.05)。大鼠脑组织α-SMA阳性染色血管计数为(12.7±3.23)条/高倍视野。Pearson相关分析显示,正常脑组织的CBV和CBF变化率与其α-SMA阳性计数之间呈显著相关(r分别为0.652和0.890,P均0.05)。结论 CT灌注技术在改变血液CO2分压的条件下可以反映脑组织血流动力学变化;大鼠正常脑组织高碳酸血症前后CT灌注参数变化率与成熟血管数量相关。     

CT灌注成像技术用于重型颅脑损伤患者脑室型颅内压探头植入的临床价值评估

目的:探讨CT灌注成像技术用于重型颅脑损伤患者脑室型颅内压(Intracranial Pressure, ICP)探头植入的临床价值。方法:选取60例重型颅脑损伤患者,均行患侧开颅去骨瓣减压和颅内压监测探头置入术。其中,行普通型颅内压监测探头置入术28例,脑室型颅内压监测探头置入术32例。比较两组术后甘露醇应用剂量和应用时间,术后局部脑血流参数区域脑血流量(regional Cerebral Blood Flow, r CBF)、相对脑血容量(relative Cerebral Blood Volume, r CBV)、平均通过时间(Mean Transit Time, MTT)、对比剂达峰时间(time to peak, TTP)恢复情况。结果:脑室型颅内压监测组患者术后应用甘露醇的剂量和天数较普通颅内压监测组明显缩短(P0.05),术后3个月随访提示脑室型ICP监测组预后良好比例较普通型ICP组显著增加(P0.05)。并且螺旋CT灌注成像结果提示脑室型颅内压监测组患者术后局部脑血流参数r CBF、r CBV、MTT、TTP恢复情况明显优于普通型颅内压监测组(P0.05)。结论:重型颅脑损伤患者应用脑室型颅内监测探头改变了脱水剂在临床应用中的治疗模式,通过螺旋CT灌注成像检测患者损伤部位的r CBF、r CBV、MTT和TTP可评估脑损伤的程度以及预后,对重型颅脑损伤的临床治疗和改善患者预后具有重要意义。     

大鼠C6脑胶质瘤CT灌注成像及其与MVD的相关性研究

目的:采用64层MSCT灌注成像(CTP)与免疫组化染色法定量观测大鼠C6脑胶质瘤的血管生成特征.方法:成年Wistar大鼠40只,采用立体定向仪进行C6细胞脑内接种,建立大鼠C6脑胶质瘤模型.每次随机抽取10只接种鼠分别对应于5-10d,10-15d,15-20d三个时间段行CTP及免疫组化微血管定量测定,观测大鼠C6脑胶质瘤血流灌注参数的动态变化规律,及其与免疫组化微血管密度(MVD)之间的相关性.结果:大鼠脑内C6细胞接种后5-10d,瘤内即有新生微血管,并随时间而继续增殖,于10-15d达到高峰,并稳定在一较高水平,15-20d肿瘤微血管有所下降.肿瘤组织毛细血管通透性在5-10d内即有明显增高,10d以后继续增高,15d以后增高显著,并在20d内无下降趋势.Pearson相关分析表明大鼠C6脑胶质瘤CBV、CBF与MVD呈显著线性正相关(CBF=0.730,rCBV=0.917,P<0.01),而PS、MTT值与MVD不具相关性(rPS=0.067,rMTT=0.002,P>0.05).结论:CTP各种参数中,PS值是反映肿瘤血管性质的较好指标,而CBF,CBV是反映肿瘤微血管数量的敏感性指标,CTP可以准确反映大鼠C6脑胶质瘤的血管生成.     

肾癌高发人群正常肾脏MSCT灌注成像研究

目的:探讨40-70岁肾癌高发人群正常肾脏MSCT灌注成像特征.方法:正常志愿者109例,采用64排多层螺旋CT对其肾脏进行平扫及灌注增强扫描,使用后处理renal tumor perfusion软件对图像进行后处理,得出正常肾脏皮髓质包括血流量(BF)、血容量(BV)、平均通过时间(MTT)及表面通透性(PS)四个灌注参数,比较同一灌注参数在皮髓质、左右侧及不同性别之间的差异.结果:受检对象除3例腹式呼吸明显,不能完成同层扫描外,其余106例均得到理想图像及数据,肾皮质与髓质BF值、BV值及PS值灌注参数值存在显著性差异(P值均＜0.01),但肾皮质与髓质MTT值无显著性差异(P＞0.05).左右侧皮质间及髓质间灌注参数无统计学差异(P＞0.05).男女皮质间及髓质间灌注参数无统计学差异(P＞0.05).结论:多层螺旋CT(MSCT)灌注成像在显示肾脏形态的同时,还可定量测量皮髓质的血流灌注情况,间接反映肾脏生理特征.     

MSCT 灌注成像在肾细胞癌临床应用价值研究*

目的:探讨肾细胞癌多层螺旋CT(MSCT)灌注成像特征,并研究其临床应用价值。方法:肾癌患者69例,采用64排多层螺旋CT对其肾脏进行平扫及灌注增强扫描,使用renal tumor perfusion软件对图像进行后处理,自动生成时间-密度曲线(TDC),各种灌注图像及感兴趣区(ROI)内的灌注参数,包括血流量(BF)、血容量(BV)、平均通过时间(MTT)及表面通透性(PS),将得到的灌注参数分别进行统计分析。结果:肾癌肿块灌注参数与已测得的正常肾皮质各灌注参数值均存在显著性差异(P值均<0.01),其中,正常肾皮质的BF值、BV值及PS值均高于肾癌组织,MTT值则相反;肾癌肿块灌注参数与已测得的正常肾髓质各灌注参数值同样存在显著性差异(p值均<0.01),正常肾髓质各灌注参数值均低于肾癌组织,而PS值二者之间差别不显著(P<0.05);肾癌患者健侧肾皮髓质灌注参数值与已测得的正常肾皮髓质各灌注参数值及肾癌患者癌旁正常肾皮髓质各灌注参数值,三者之间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论:多层螺旋CT(MSCT)灌注成像在显示肾脏形态的同时,还可定量测量皮髓质的血流灌注情况,间接反映肾脏生理特征。     

CT灌注成像与大鼠C6胶质瘤CD105表达的相关性

目的研究大鼠脑C6胶质瘤CT灌注参数的变化特征,分析CT灌注参数在评价C6胶质瘤血管生成中的价值。方法 20只雄性SD大鼠,随机分为肿瘤组和对照组。对照组通过立体定向仪于鼠脑右侧尾状核区注射10μL生理盐水,肿瘤组于鼠脑右侧尾状核区种植C6胶质瘤细胞复制大鼠脑胶质瘤模型,3周后两组大鼠分别在脑尾状核层面进行CT灌注扫描,大鼠脑组织进行HE染色及FVIII抗体和CD105单抗免疫组化染色。应用SPSS11.5统计学软件进行数据分析,P〈0.05有统计学意义。结果大鼠胶质瘤的CBV、CBF、PS及MTT值分别为（17.35±6.73）mL/100 g、（508.66±158.88）mL/min.100 g、（13.92±8.96）mL/min.100 g、（1.79±0.44）s;对照组大鼠右侧基底节CBV、CBF、PS及MTT值分别为（均数±标准差）分别为（10.28±4.01）mL/100 g、（304.95±88.77）mL/100 g.min、（0.26±0.34）mL/100 g.min、（1.48±0.07）s,两组CBV、CBF、PS值差异有显著性,胶质瘤组呈现明显的高灌注特征,MTT差异无显著性。胶质瘤FVIII和CD105计数分别为（34.7±7.13）条/高倍视野、（16.6±4.12）条/高倍视野;对照组FVIII计数为（17.31±5.62）条/高倍视野,对照组无明显CD105染色阳性血管。肿瘤实质区的CBV、PS与免疫组化的FVIII-MVD和CD105-MVD计数之间明显相关（P均〈0.05）,CBF与CD105-MVD计数之间相关（P〈0.05）,MTT与免疫组化MVD计数之间均无显著相关性。结论 CT灌注参数CBV、CBF及PS与CD105-MVD表达正相关,CT灌注成像有助于胶质瘤血管生成的研究。     

16层螺旋CT灌注成像对肝硬化血流状态的评估及与肝硬化程度的相关性研究

目的:探讨16层螺旋CT灌注成像对肝硬化血流状态的评估价值及其与肝硬化程度的相关性。方法:选取2014年1月至2016年1月于我院接受诊治的肝硬化患者126例作为肝硬化组,根据Child-Pugh分级分为A组(Child A级,n=35例)、B组(Child B级,n=50例)、C组(Child C级,n=41例)。另选取同期于我院接受体检的健康人员100例作为对照组。应用16层螺旋CT对受试者肝脏、脾脏、主动脉以及门静脉的层面进行CT动态增强扫描,对比CT灌注参数,采用Pearson相关性分析分析CT灌注参数与肝硬化病情严重程度的关系。结果:肝硬化组肝动脉灌注量(HAP)、肝动脉灌注指数(HPI)、肝脏血流量(TBV)以及平均通过时间(MTT)均明显高于对照组,而门静脉灌注量(PVP)、总肝灌注量(TLP)均明显低于对照组(P0.05)。A组患者HAP、HPI均明显高于C组,而PVP与TLP均明显低于C组,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);两组TBV、MTT比较无统计学差异(P0.05);而A组与B组相比以及B组与C组相比,各项CT灌注参数均无统计学差异(P0.05)。肝硬化患者病情严重程度与HAP、HPI均呈正相关关系(P0.05),而与PVP、TLP均呈负相关关系(P0.05)。结论:16层螺旋CT灌注成像对肝硬化血流状态具有一定的评估价值,且CT灌注参数的水平变化与肝硬化患者病情严重程度存在密切相关。     

早期股骨头坏死CT灌注成像的实验研究

目的:探讨兔早期股骨头坏死血液动力学的变化规律.方法:实验设醋酸强的松龙诱导和正常对照组各15只新西兰大白兔,分别每2周对实验组3只,正常对照组3只进行多层螺旋CT股骨头灌注成像扫描,用灌注分析软件取得不同病变阶段股骨头的灌注参数,同时作相应的病理学观察,进行对照研究和统计学分析.结果:自2周末至10周末,实验组股骨头单位体积血流量呈下降趋势.统计结果显示,对照组兔和实验组兔第2周末与实验组兔第4周末差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05),但与第6周末差异显著(P＜0.01),与第8及10周末差异极显著(P＜0.01).平均通过时间逐渐缩短,与股骨头单位体积血流量的变化有类似的统计学结果.结论:股骨头CT灌注参数可定量测定股骨头血流变化,可反映早期股骨头坏死形成过程中的血液动力学改变,因此,股骨头血流灌注参数改变对股骨头坏死的早期诊断、治疗和疗效观察有重要价值.     

帕金森病合并抑郁与脑血流灌注的关系及经颅磁刺激的影响

目的：应用CT灌注成像技术观察帕金森病合并抑郁患者局灶脑血流灌注的特点,进一步探讨抑郁症发生与脑血流的关系.方法：将41例帕金森患者根据是否合并抑郁症分为帕金森病组22例、帕金森病合并抑郁症者为抑郁组19例、其中抑郁组分为经颅磁刺激（rTMS）治疗前组、治疗后组,3组均进行CT局部脑血流灌注显像,半定量分析各脑区血流灌注情况.结果：帕金森合并抑郁症组患者双侧额叶、颞叶和基底节的脑血流量测定（CBF）较帕金森病组显著下降（P＜0.05）;抑郁组左、右侧脑血流低灌注存在不对称性,左侧额叶、顶叶的CBF较右侧显著下降（P＜0.01）;rTMS治疗后脑血流灌注较治疗前改善,HAMD评分改善（P＜0.05）.结论：帕金森患者存在局灶性脑血流灌注降低,合并抑郁症患者额、顶叶下降更明显,经颅磁刺激治疗后脑血流低灌注改善.     

Cerebral Blood Volume ASPECTS Is the Best Predictor of Clinical Outcome in Acute Ischemic Stroke: A Retrospective,Combined Semi-Quantitative and Quantitative Assessment

Introduction

The capability of CT perfusion (CTP) Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score (ASPECTS) to predict outcome and identify ischemia severity in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients is still questioned.

Methods

62 patients with AIS were imaged within 8 hours of symptom onset by non-contrast CT, CT angiography and CTP scans at admission and 24 hours. CTP ASPECTS was calculated on the affected hemisphere using cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV) and mean transit time (MTT) maps by subtracting 1 point for any abnormalities visually detected or measured within multiple cortical circular regions of interest according to previously established thresholds. MTT-CBV ASPECTS was considered as CTP ASPECTS mismatch. Hemorrhagic transformation (HT), recanalization status and reperfusion grade at 24 hours, final infarct volume at 7 days and modified Rankin scale (mRS) at 3 months after onset were recorded.

Results

Semi-quantitative and quantitative CTP ASPECTS were highly correlated (p<0.00001). CBF, CBV and MTT ASPECTS were higher in patients with no HT and mRS≤2 and inversely associated with final infarct volume and mRS (p values: from p<0.05 to p<0.00001). CTP ASPECTS mismatch was slightly associated with radiological and clinical outcomes (p values: from p<0.05 to p<0.02) only if evaluated quantitatively. A CBV ASPECTS of 9 was the optimal semi-quantitative value for predicting outcome.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that visual inspection of CTP ASPECTS recognizes infarct and ischemic absolute values. Semi-quantitative CBV ASPECTS, but not CTP ASPECTS mismatch, represents a strong prognostic indicator, implying that core extent is the main determinant of outcome, irrespective of penumbra size.     

Long-term course of the cerebral circulatory function after brain irradiation in rats

Long-term evolution of radioisotope indices, evaluating respectively the cerebral blood flow (CBF), the cerebral blood volume (CBV) and the cephalic specific distribution space of iodoantipyrine (delta IAP) of rat, was studied after brain irradiation at 20 Gy. Radioinduced hemodynamic alterations evidenced by this approach are biphasic and support the prominent role of circulation impairment in the genesis of delayed brain radionecrosis.     

Effect of aging on brain energy-metabolism

The aging process involves morphological and functional changes in cerebral vasculature and deterioration of mitochondrial number and function. Furthermore, slow oscillations of cerebral blood flow and oxidative metabolism occur in animals under different pathological conditions such as ischemia. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of aging on energy-metabolism of the rat brain during anoxia and normoxia and to further investigate the occurrence of oscillations under normoxia in the aging brain. Simultaneous hemodynamical (CBF), biochemical (NADH/NAD ratio) and electrical activity from the cerebral cortex were measured by means of a multiparametric assembly (MPA) system. Exposure of adult rats to anoxia (100% N(2)) resulted in a 36+/-2% elevation of NADH. Furthermore, exposure of the aged group to anoxia caused NADH elevation as low as 9.6+/-4% (P<0.05). The changes in the NADH levels were followed by an increase in CBF. In addition, during the normoxic periods, hemodynamic oscillations were recorded in the old animals. This study suggests that the structural and functional changes that occur in vessels in the aging brain cause disability of cerebromicrovessels to optimally deliver nutrients and oxygen to the brain, affecting the mitochondrial ability to respond to anoxia. Furthermore, this study supports the approach that the hemodynamic oscillations are related to the development of a pathological state and are not a normal cerebral function.     

兔脑微栓塞模型脑血流动力学的CT灌注动态变化

目的探讨兔脑微栓塞模型CT灌注成像（CT perfusion imaging,CTPI）脑血流动力学的动态变化规律。方法 30只新西兰兔,随机分成两组,A组：假手术对照组5只,B组：微栓塞组25只。经颈外动脉向颈内动脉注入直径约0.5 mm的SiO2颗粒10枚,分别于栓塞后30 min、3 h、6 h、12 h及24 h行CTPI,24 h处死动物取脑组织行HE染色。根据HE染色结果将模型分为缺血组和梗死组,分别观察其脑血流量（cerebral blood flow,CBF）、脑血容积（cerebral blood volume,CBV）和平均通过时间（mean transit time,MTT）的动态变化规律。结果 A组CTPI及HE染色均未见明显异常。B组3只因实验意外死亡,1只因下肢静脉穿刺失败导致CTPI失败,21只行CTPI,其中18只灌注异常,3只未见明显异常。18只灌注异常的兔中,HE染色10只脑梗死,7只脑缺血,1只未见明显异常。30 min时7只缺血兔脑不同程度低灌注,表现为CBF降低,MTT延长,CBV无显著变化,3～6 h低灌注进一步加重,CBV值略降低,12 h低灌注不同程度恢复,24 h进一步恢复。30 min时10只梗死兔脑明显低灌注,表现为CBF及CBV显著降低,MTT显著延长,3只兔低灌注分别在3 h、6 h及12 h不同程度恢复,然后下一时间又迅速降低并随着时间延长进一步加剧,其余7只兔低灌注程度随时间延长逐渐加剧或在一定水平上波动。结论脑缺血3～6 h低灌注最明显,12～24 h低灌注不同程度恢复,而脑梗死随时间延长低灌注程度不断加重或一过性恢复后再次加重。脑缺血的特征是CBF和CBV的不匹配,缺血组织CBF显著降低,CBV无显著变化,而脑梗死则表现为这两个参数的一致性下降。     

Arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure influences CYP4A distribution in the rat brain

PaCO(2) is an important factor in the regulation of cerebral circulation, and it is often used to reduce intracranial pressure through hyperventilation during neurosurgery. Changes in concentration can cause changes in CBF (cerebral blood flow). 20-HETE is a product of CYP4A-mediated AA (arachidonic acid) metabolism and is a powerful endogenous vasoconstrictor; however, its effect on cerebral vasoconstriction in cats, dogs and rats remains to be confirmed. It is known that changes in PaCO(2) can influence the expression of CYP4A in the rat brain, demonstrating the important role of 20-HETE in the mechanism of CO(2)-mediated cerebrovascular reactivity. Thirty healthy adult male Wistar rats that weighed between 200 g and 250 g were randomly divided into three groups (A, B, and C; n=10): group A, normocapnia (PaCO(2) was maintained at approximately 40-45 mmHg); group B, hypocapnia (PaCO(2) was maintained at approximately 20-25 mmHg); and group C, hypercapnia (PaCO(2) was maintained at approximately 60-65 mmHg). Physiological parameters, including HR (heart rate), MBP(mean blood pressure), PH and PaCO(2) were recorded every 30 min, and there were no significant hemodynamic or body temperature differences. The head was removed after 3.5 h to investigate brain CYP4A by immunohistochemistry. Relative to group A, group B exhibited the following changes: an increased pH, decreased PaCO(2), and increased brain CYP4A protein expression (P<0.05). In contrast, group C exhibited decreased PH, increased PaCO(2) and decreased CYP4A protein expression (P<0.05). CO(2) can decrease the expression of brain CYP4A during hypercapnia and increase its expression during hypocapnia.     

MRI Detects Brain Reorganization after Human Umbilical Tissue-Derived Cells (hUTC) Treatment of Stroke in Rat

Human umbilical tissue-derived cells (hUTC) represent an attractive cell source and a potential technology for neurorestoration and improvement of functional outcomes following stroke. Male Wistar rats were subjected to a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo) and were intravenously administered hUTC (N = 11) or vehicle (N = 10) 48 hrs after stroke. White matter and vascular reorganization was monitored over a 12-week period using MRI and histopathology. MRI results were correlated with neurological functional and histology outcomes to demonstrate that MRI can be a useful tool to measure structural recovery after stroke. MRI revealed a significant reduction in the ventricular volume expansion and improvement in cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the hUTC treated group compared to vehicle treated group. Treatment with hUTC resulted in histological and functional improvements as evidenced by enhanced expression of vWF and synaptophysin, and improved outcomes on behavioral tests. Significant correlations were detected between MRI ventricular volumes and histological lesion volume as well as number of apoptotic cells. A positive correlation was also observed between MRI CBF or cerebral blood volume (CBV) and histological synaptic density. Neurological functional tests were also significantly correlated with MRI ventricular volume and CBV. Our data demonstrated that MRI measurements can detect the effect of hUTC therapy on the brain reorganization and exhibited positive correlation with histological measurements of brain structural changes and functional behavioral tests after stroke. MRI ventricular volumes provided the most sensitive index in monitoring brain remodeling and treatment effects and highly correlated with histological and functional measurements.     

Effect of hypercapnia on cerebral blood flow and blood volume in pigs studied by positron emission tomography

Pigs are increasingly used as in vivo models in neuroscience, including studies using positron emission tomography. During anesthesia, cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV) are mainly regulated by the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in arterial blood. We sought to determine the effects of increased arterial pCO2 (hypercapnia) on CBF and CBV in anesthetized domestic pigs. We anesthetized 4 pigs and manipulated the tidal volume of the ventilator to different pCO2 levels. Baseline pCO2 was on average 6.5 kPa (n = 9 periods) and hypercapnia pCO2 ranged from 11 to 20 kPa, mean 18.5 kPa (n = 9 periods). Series of dynamic PET scans with H(2)15O (CBF measurements) and C15O (CBV measurements) were performed. CBF increased on average 54%, from mean 0.48 ml blood/min/ml brain tissue during normoxia to 0.74 ml blood/min/ml brain tissue during hypercapnia. CBV increased 41% from mean 0.061 ml blood/ml brain tissue (n = 6) during normoxia to 0.086 ml blood/ml brain tissue (n = 6) during hypercapnia. Our observations indicate that pCO2 levels have a major influence on porcine CBF and CBV and should be controlled in studies where a constant level is crucial.