人体颈椎松质骨显微结构和力学性能的区域性差异研究

目的:探讨人体脊柱松质骨骨骼显微结构和力学性能的区域性差异,为松质骨三维结构采样部位的选取提供参考。方法:显微CT扫描6块颈6椎体标本获得三维图像,依据椎体内解剖位置的不同,将松质骨划分为6个位置组:外侧、内侧、腹侧、背侧、头侧和尾侧。利用显微结构参数骨体积分数(Bone volume to tissue volume,BV/TV)、骨表面积和骨体积的比值(Bone surface to bone volume,BS/BV)、骨小梁数量(Trabecular number,Tb.N)、骨小梁厚度(Trabecular thickness,Tb.Th)、骨小梁分离度(Trabecular separation,Tb.Sp)和个体化骨小梁分割方法(Individual trabeculae segmentation,ITS)分析6个位置组内松质骨显微结构,并利用有限元分析,获得6个位置组内松质骨的力学性能参数表观弹性模量和表观剪切模量。分别两两对比外侧和内侧,腹侧和背侧,头侧和尾侧松质骨的显微结构参数(BV/TV、BS/BV、Tb.N、Tb.Th、Tb.Sp和个体化骨小梁分割得到的参数)和力学性能参数(表观弹性模量和表观剪切模量)。结果:头侧和尾侧的主要显微结构参数BV/TV、Tb.Th、Tb.N等和表观弹性模量均存在显著差异(P0.05)。腹侧和背侧、内侧和外侧的主要显微结构参数BV/TV、Tb.Th、Tb.N等无显著差异。外侧和内侧的表观弹性模量在非主方向即内外方向和腹背放上上存在显著差异(P0.05),在主方向即头尾上无显著差异。结论:在实验中采集椎体松质骨样本以及临床上利用高分辨率CT分析椎体松质骨结构时,感兴趣区域要同时涵盖头侧和尾侧。     

氧化钛纳米管对即刻种植骨结合影响的实验研究

目的:评价氧化钛纳米管对犬即刻种植骨结合效果的影响。方法:犬拔牙后即刻将光滑表面(对照组)和氧化钛纳米管表面(实验组)种植体植入拔牙窝内,于12周后处死取材,进行显微CT扫描、组织学染色分析以及生物力学检测。结果:扫描电镜显示经过阳极氧化后,钛表面形成了直径为30-80纳米的纳米管状结构;12周后,显微CT扫描结果提示实验组骨体积分数(BV/TV)、骨小梁数目(Tb.N)、骨小梁厚度(Tb.Th)均显著高于对照组,骨小梁间隙(Tb.Sp)显著低于对照组,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。术后12周,实验组与对照组骨结合率分别为49.35±11.76%、31.79±13.07%,最大拔出力分别为105.28±27.87N、79.23±20.46N,实验组均显著高于对照组,差异均具有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:氧化钛纳米管表面有利于促进即刻种植后骨结合的效果。     

ERα基因过表达对去卵巢骨质疏松小鼠骨密度及钙磷代谢的影响

目的: 探讨雌激素受体α(ERα)基因过表达对去卵巢骨质疏松小鼠骨代谢及钙磷代谢的影响,为靶向基因治疗骨质疏松症提供实验依据。方法: 选择SPF级雌性小鼠30只,随机分为假手术组、模型组和ERα过表达组,每组10只。采用双侧卵巢切除法制备绝经后骨质疏松小鼠模型,模型建立完成后,ERα过表达组通过椎体髓腔注射的方法转染携带小鼠ERα基因的重组腺病毒载体,模型组转染空载病毒,假手术组不作处理。实时荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)检测小鼠骨组织ERα基因表达;分别于造模后检测小鼠股骨骨密度(BMD);采用Micro-CT扫描测量骨小梁数量(Tb.N)、骨小梁厚度(Tb.Th)、骨小梁分离度(Tb.Sp)、骨体积分数(BV/TV),并进行股骨生物力学强度检测;采用全自动生化仪检测血清中钙(Ca)、磷(P)、骨钙素(BGP)、碱性磷酸酶(ALP)含量;采用免疫组化检测骨组织中基质金属蛋白酶的组织抑制剂1(TIMP-1)和单核细胞趋化蛋白-1(MCP-1)的蛋白表达水平。结果: 与假手术组相比,模型组小鼠骨组织ERα基因表达水平显著降低、BMD、BV/TV、Tb.Th、最大载荷、刚性系数、Ca和P降低,而Tb.Sp、BGP和ALP显著升高(P＜0.05);ERα过表达组小鼠骨组织ERα基因表达水平、BMD、BV/TV、Tb.Th、最大载荷、刚性系数、Ca和P较模型组小鼠显著上升;而Tb.Sp、BGP和ALP显著降低(P＜0.05)。与假手术组相比,模型组小鼠骨组织中TIMP-1平均光密度值显著降低而MCP-1平均光密度值升高,而ERα过表达组TIMP-1平均光密度值显著升高而MCP-1显著降低(P＜0.05)。结论: ERα基因过表达通过调节骨密度、骨参数、骨代谢、钙磷代谢指标及组织中TIMP-1和MCP-1的表达水平,改善骨质疏松。     

基于聚醚醚酮的骨科植入材料生物相容性研究

本研究基于聚醚醚酮的骨科植入材料生物相容性的研究,进一步分析聚醚醚酮(polyether-ether-ketone,PEEK)骨科植入材料生物的相容性能,以有效提高其生物功能性,进而获得更加可靠的骨-植入体界面。本研究通过以新西兰大白兔为研究对象,采用改性/未改性的PEEK材料制备了腰椎模型并植入,最后进行了生物力学与Micro CT分析。实验研究表明,以改性及未改性的PEEK材料制备的腰椎假体在植入动物体内后后,动物体内未发生显著相关的急慢性毒性反应。对比植入的两种PEEK假体我们发现,改性的PEEK腰椎假体在植入动物后第4周,其临近椎骨的植入部位在骨体积分数等参数上发生了明显的改善(p0.05);植入后第8周检查,以骨体积分数(BV/TV)、(骨密度(BMD)、骨小梁厚度(Tb.Th)、骨小梁分离度(Tb.Sp)以及骨表面体积分数(BS/BV)等为代表的多项重要的骨组织形态计量学参数均发生了显著的改善(p0.05)。同时,研究通过采用拔出试验来验证植入材料的生物力学性能,实验发现改性PEEK材料能够有效促进植入假体与椎骨的紧密结合。因此,实验中针对PEEK材料采用rh BMP-2与胶原蛋白对表面进行改性可以高效地、快速地达到效果,并且能够明显提高骨科植入的PEEK材料的生物功能性与生物相容性。     

阿司匹林对去势大鼠腰椎骨密度及微观结构的影响

目的:研究阿司匹林对去势(卵巢切除)大鼠腰椎骨密度及微观结构的影响。方法:取48只3月龄SD雌性大鼠随机分为6组:去势组(OVX组)、对照组(Sham组)及4个阿司匹林治疗组(Aspirin组),每组8只。OVX组及Aspirin组采用卵巢切除法建立骨质疏松模型。去势后1周,阿司匹林治疗组剂量分别为2.25、4.46、8.92及26.75 mg/kg(A1、A2、A3及A4组),每天灌胃一次,OVX组及Sham组予同等量生理盐水灌胃。灌胃3个月后处死,剖取腰椎椎体,以双能X线吸收骨密度测量仪(DXA)和Micro-CT进行测量分析。结果:DXA分析结果显示:阿司匹林各剂量组BMD值较OVX组有统计学差异(P<0.01)。Micro-CT分析表明:与OVX组比较,阿司匹林各剂量组BV/TV、Tb.Th、Tb.N、BMD均显著性提高(P<0.01),BS/BV、Tb.Sp显著性降低(P<0.01),阿司匹林各剂量组BV/TV、BS/BV、Tb.Th、Tb.N、Tb.Sp、BMD与Sham组相比有统计学差异(P<0.01)。结论:阿司匹林可以改善去势大鼠骨小梁结构,增加骨质密度,对去势大鼠骨质疏松具有防治作用,其作用途径可能包括抑制骨吸收和刺激骨形成两方面。     

联合高分辨率MRI和micro-CT评价桃红四物汤对兔股骨头坏死的修复作用

目的建立激素性股骨头坏死(SIONFH)家兔模型,联合高分辨率MRI和micro-CT评价桃红四物汤(THSWD)对于SIONFH微观骨性结构破坏的修复作用。方法将25只新西兰兔随机分为3组:正常组5只、模型组和中药组(桃红四物汤组)各10只,采用内毒素(LPS)联合甲强龙(MPS)的方法制备激素性股骨头坏死模型,中药组给予0.3 g/kg桃红四物汤混悬液灌胃,正常组和模型组灌服等体积超纯水。实验第8周分别进行股骨头部3.0 T高分辨率磁共振影像仪高分辨率MRI检查,对股骨头部苏木精-伊红染色病理检测及micro CT检测。结果1)高分辨率MRI中模型组股骨头内可见低信号带;中药组股骨头外形趋于正常,股骨头内近骨骺处有小块低密度区,大部分骨组织灰度值正常。模型组和正常组相比,结构参数前者ROE值增加,ROE/NR比例增加,中药组与模型组相比,ROE值减少,ROE/NR比例减少,差异有显著性(P0.05)。2)经苏木精-伊红染色中,模型组可见部分骨小梁断裂,骨细胞核固缩,骨小梁空骨陷窝,骨髓细胞坏死,差异有显著性(P0.05),中药组可见成骨活动仍较为活跃,骨小梁形态较好。3)在micro-CT中,模型组与正常组相比,前者BV/TV、Conn.D.、SMI、Tb.N、Tb.Th、值降低,BS/BV、Tb.Sp增高。中药组中,BS/BV、Tb.Sp显著低于模型组,Conn.D.、SMI、Tb.N增高,差异有显著性(P0.05),ROI三维重建可见模型组骨小梁紊乱,可见普遍断裂,骨质较少;中药组相对而言骨质改善,骨小梁有局部性修复。结论桃红四物汤能促进兔SIONFH模型的微观骨性结构修复和生物力学环境改善。     

去卵巢大鼠腰椎骨微结构变化的动态观察

目的:动态观察去卵巢大鼠腰椎骨微结构的变化。方法:将90只3月龄雌性SD大鼠按体重进行分层随机抽样分组,分为基础组(10只)、假手术组(40只)和去卵巢组(40只)。手术前(0周)处死基础组大鼠,手术后3、6、12、24周时,分批处死假手术和去卵巢组大鼠各8-10只。从每组随机取6只大鼠的第5腰椎行micro-CT扫描及三维结构重建,选取椎体1 mm处,2.0 mm×3.5mm,厚0.9 mm的骨组织为感兴趣区域(interesting area),进行骨形态计量学分析。结果:与同一时间点假手术组大鼠比较,去卵巢3周时,第5腰椎体积骨密度(v BMD)、骨体积分数(BV/TV)、骨小梁数目(Tb.N)、骨小梁厚度(Tb.Th)、骨小梁间隙(Tb.Sp)和结构模型指数(SMI)均无显著变化;去卵巢6周时,Tb.Th显著下降(P0.05),而其他指标均无显著变化;从去卵巢12周到24周时,不仅Tb.Th显著下降(P0.05),而且v BMD、BV/TV和Tb.N也显著下降(P0.05),同时Tb.Sp和SMI显著增加(P0.05)。结论:3月龄大鼠在去卵巢后的6周时骨小梁厚度变薄,12周以后,体积骨密度和骨体积分数下降,骨小梁数目减少。     

Micro-CT观察重组人甲状旁腺素在骨折愈合过程中的作用

目的使用Micro-CT,探讨重组人甲状旁腺激素(rh PTH)在2月龄雄性大鼠骨折愈合过程中的作用。方法应用2月龄雄性SD大鼠建立单侧闭合性股骨骨折内固定模型,随机分为甲状旁腺素治疗组和对照组,术后分别皮下注射重组人甲状旁腺素(1-34)10μg/(kg.d)或等剂量生理盐水安慰剂(对照组),分别于术后第2、7、14、21和42天取双侧股骨标本,分别行X线检查和Micro-CT观察,并进行骨结构的定量分析。结果术后第21天,甲状旁腺素组骨折断端两侧的骨痂之间连续性良好,骨折线已模糊不清。甲状旁腺组较对照组,在术后第42天骨体积(bone Volume,BV)、骨体积分数(BV/TV)、骨密度(bone mineral density,BMD)和骨小梁模式因子(trabecular bone pattern factor,Tb.Pf)明显高于对照组;而骨小梁分离度(trabecular separation,Tb.Sp)和各向异性的程度(degree of anisotropy,DA)低于对照组。结论低剂量重组人甲状旁腺激素可提高大鼠骨折BV、BV/TV、Tb.Pf和BMD而降低Tb.Sp和DA,从而促进骨折的愈合。     

生物衍生松质骨支架材料的Micro—CT量化分析

目的：在骨组织工程中,如何制备出理想的支架材料一直是研究重点;目前主要的有天然生物支架材料、人工合成有机材料和无机材料等;生物衍生骨即天然生物支架材料的一种,由于其与天然骨在形态结构上较为相似,是近年来研究较多的支架材料之一;既往形态学研究局限于在二维层面,对于其三维结构参数分析较少。故本实验主要运用Micro-CT对生物衍生松质骨的三维结构参数进行分析,量化评价其作为骨组织工程支架材料的结构参数。方法：截取新鲜猪松质骨,经脱脂脱蛋白部分脱钙及去抗原处理后,制作成生物衍生骨支架;应用Micro．CT扫描,重建三维图并量化分析其结构参数,统计软件SPSS分析各参数间的相关性。结果：经Micro．CT扫描,得到二维CT图和三维重建图。各三维结构参数的值分别为：BV／TV（20．48±5．14）％;BS／BV（41．66±5．39）1／ram;Porosity（79．52±5．14）％;Tb．Th（0．10±0．01）mm;Tb．N（1．99±0．47）l／mm;Tb．Sp（0．32±0．05）mm;Tb．Pf（2．03±4．70）1／mm;SMI（1．28±0．35）;DA（1．60±0．23）;Corm．Dn（158．53±106．09）I／mm3。各参数间相关系数具有统计学意义的为：（1）Porosity与BS／BV、Tb．Th;（2）BV／TV与BS／BV、Tb．Th;（3）BS／BV与Coma．Dn、Porosity、BV/TV、;（4）Tb．Th与Porosity、BV厂IV、Conn．Dn;（5）DA与Corm．Dn;（6）Conn．Dn与Bs／BV、Tb．Th、DA。结论：Micro-CT扫描、量化分析是评价支架材料结构参数的理想方法;也证明生物衍生骨支架符合骨组织工程对支架材料的三维结构要求,尤其在孔径大小、孔隙率、表面积体积比等三维结构参数,此外,也可为其他支架材料的制备在三维结构上的要求提供参考依据。     

PEMFs对绝经后骨质疏松症的影响

目的:探讨低频率低强度脉冲电磁场(PEMFs)对绝经后骨质疏松症大鼠的影响.方法:选取3-5月龄雌性SD大鼠,随机分为五组,即阴性对照组(Sham),模型组(Model),阳性对照组(XLGB),脉冲磁场照射组(PEMFs)和给药十照射治疗组(X+P),除Sham实行假性手术外,其余四组经手术分别摘取两侧卵巢(OVX).OVX术后1月按照分组开始治疗,3个月后处死动物,测量大鼠骨转化生化指标(血清ALP,OC和尿DPD),股骨总BMD,BMC,股骨干骺端骨小梁微结构(BV/TV,Conn.D,SMI,Tb·N、Tb·Th、Th·Sp及Tb·Ar),骨生物力学性能(Stress)变化并计算,结果:XLGB、PEMFs、X+P组BMD、BMC、Th·"N、Tb·Th值显著增强,SMI,Th·Sp值显著减小(P<0.01);ALP值有所减小BV/TV,Conn.D值有所增加(P<0.05);Sham组Stress值有明显差异(P<0.01),PEMFs组有一定差异(P<0.05);提示经过磁场照射和(或)药物治疗后股骨生物力学显著增强,骨组织结构骨质疏松症状得到明显改善.结论:PEMFs对绝经后雌激素缺乏引起的OP大鼠有较好的治疗作用.     

Intrinsic mechanical properties of trabecular calcaneus determined by finite-element models using 3D synchrotron microtomography

To determine intrinsic mechanical properties (elastic and failure) of trabecular calcaneus bone, chosen as a good predictor of hip fracture, we looked for the influence of image's size on a numerical simulation. One cubic sample of cancellous bone (9 x 9 x 9 mm(3)) was removed from the body of the calcaneus (6 females, 6 males, 79+/-9 yr). These samples were tested under compressive loading. Before compressive testing, these samples were imaged at 10.13 microm resolution using a 3D microcomputed tomography (muCT) (ESRF, France). The muCT images were converted to finite-element models. Depending on the bone density values (BV/TV), we compared two different finite element models: a linear hexahedral and a linear beam finite element models. Apparent experimental Young's modulus (E(app)(exp)) and maximum apparent experimental compressive stress (sigma(max)(exp)) were significantly correlated with bone density obtained by Archimedes's test (E(app)(exp)=236+/-231 MPa [19-742 MPa], sigma(max)(exp)=2.61+/-1.97 MPa [0.28-5.81 MPa], r>0.80, p<0.001). Under threshold at 40 microm, the size of the numerical samples (5.18(3) and 6.68(3)mm(3)) seems to be an important parameter on the accuracy of the results. The numerical trabecular Young's modulus was widely higher (E(trabecular)(num)=34,182+/-22,830 MPa [9700-87,211 MPa]) for the larger numerical samples and high BV/TV than those found classically by other techniques (4700-15,000 MPa). For rod-like bone samples (BV/TV<12%, n=7), Young's modulus, using linear beam element (E(trabecular)(num-skeleton): 10,305+/-5500 MPa), were closer to the Young's modulus found by other techniques. Those results show the limitation of hexahedral finite elements at 40 microm, mostly used, for thin trabecular structures.     

Finite element models predict cancellous apparent modulus when tissue modulus is scaled from specimen CT-attenuation

High-resolution architecture-based finite element models are commonly used for characterizing the mechanical behavior of cancellous bone. The vast majority of studies use homogeneous material properties to model trabecular tissue. The objectives of this study were to demonstrate that inhomogeneous finite element models that account for microcomputed tomography-measured tissue modulus variability more accurately predict the apparent stiffness of cancellous bone than homogeneous models, and to examine the sensitivity of an inhomogeneous model to the degree of tissue property variability. We tested five different material cases in finite element models of ten cancellous cubes in simulated uniaxial compression. Three of these cases were inhomogeneous and two were homogeneous. Four of these cases were unique to each specimen, and the remaining case had the same tissue modulus for all specimens. Results from all simulations were compared with measured elastic moduli from previous experiments. Tissue modulus variability for the most accurate of the three inhomogeneous models was then artificially increased to simulate the effects of non-linear CT-attenuation-modulus relationships. Uniqueness of individual models was more critical for model accuracy than level of inhomogeneity. Both homogeneous and inhomogeneous models that were unique to each specimen had at least 8% greater explanatory power for apparent modulus than models that applied the same material properties to all specimens. The explanatory power for apparent modulus of models with a tissue modulus coefficient of variation (COV) range of 21-31% was 13% greater than homogeneous models (COV=0). The results of this study indicate that inhomogenous finite element models that have tissue moduli unique to each specimen more accurately predict the elastic behavior of cancellous cubic specimens than models that have common tissue moduli between all specimens.     

Comparison of the linear finite element prediction of deformation and strain of human cancellous bone to 3D digital volume correlation measurements

The mechanical properties of cancellous bone and the biological response of the tissue to mechanical loading are related to deformation and strain in the trabeculae during function. Due to the small size of trabeculae, their motion is difficult to measure. To avoid the need to measure trabecular motions during loading the finite element method has been used to estimate trabecular level mechanical deformation. This analytical approach has been empirically successful in that the analytical models are solvable and their results correlate with the macroscopically measured stiffness and strength of bones. The present work is a direct comparison of finite element predictions to measurements of the deformation and strain at near trabecular level. Using the method of digital volume correlation, we measured the deformation and calculated the strain at a resolution approaching the trabecular level for cancellous bone specimens loaded in uniaxial compression. Smoothed results from linearly elastic finite element models of the same mechanical tests were correlated to the empirical three-dimensional (3D) deformation in the direction of loading with a coefficient of determination as high as 97% and a slope of the prediction near one. However, real deformations in the directions perpendicular to the loading direction were not as well predicted by the analytical models. Our results show, that the finite element modeling of the internal deformation and strain in cancellous bone can be accurate in one direction but that this does not ensure accuracy for all deformations and strains.     

Effect of vertebral body stiffness before and after vertebroplasty on intradiscal pressure]

Fractures of osteoporotic vertebral bodies are increasingly stabilized with bone cement. The effects of vertebral-body stiffness before and after augmentation with bone cement and of wedge-shaped vertebral body fractures on intradiscal pressure are insufficiently known. In a finite element model of the lumbar spine the elastic modulus of cancellous bone as well as the amount and the elastic modulus of bone cement were varied and the dependency of intradiscal pressure on these parameters was calculated. In addition, a wedge-shaped vertebral-body fracture was simulated. The bulge of the vertebral-body endplate and thus the intradiscal pressure depends strongly on the grade of osteoporosis in the vertebral body. The influence of amount and elastic modulus of bone cement on intradiscal pressure is small. A wedge-shaped vertebral-body fracture causes an anterior shift of upper-body centre of gravity. If this shift is not compensated, it leads to an increased flexion moment that has to be balanced by muscle forces. In addition, this shift leads to a stronger increase of intradiscal pressure than the augmentation of the vertebral body with bone cement.     

A Comparison of Micro-CT and Dental CT in Assessing Cortical Bone Morphology and Trabecular Bone Microarchitecture

Objective

The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the trabecular bone microarchitecture and cortical bone morphology by using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and dental cone-beam computed tomography (dental CT).

Materials and Methods

Sixteen femurs and eight fifth lumbar vertebrae were collected from eight male Sprague Dawley rats. Four trabecular bone microarchitecture parameters related to the fifth lumbar vertebral body (percent bone volume [BV/TV], trabecular thickness [TbTh], trabecular separation [TbSp], and trabecular number [TbN]) were calculated using micro-CT. In addition, the volumetric cancellous bone grayscale value (vCanGrayscale) of the fifth lumbar vertebral body was measured using dental CT. Furthermore, four cortical bone morphology parameters of the femoral diaphysis (total cross-sectional area [TtAr], cortical area [CtAr], cortical bone area fraction [CtAr/TtAr], and cortical thickness [CtTh]) were calculated using both micro-CT and dental CT. Pearson analysis was conducted to calculate the correlation coefficients (r) of the micro-CT and dental CT measurements. Paired-sample t tests were used to compare the differences between the measurements of the four cortical bone morphology parameters obtained using micro-CT and dental CT.

Results

High correlations between the vCanGrayscale measured using dental CT and the trabecular bone microarchitecture parameters (BV/TV [r = 0.84] and TbTh [r = 0.84]) measured using micro-CT were observed. The absolute value of the four cortical bone morphology parameters may be different between the dental CT and micro-CT approaches. However, high correlations (r ranged from 0.71 to 0.90) among these four cortical bone morphology parameters measured using the two approaches were obtained.

Conclusion

We observed high correlations between the vCanGrayscale measured using dental CT and the trabecular bone microarchitecture parameters (BV/TV and TbTh) measured using micro-CT, in addition to high correlations between the cortical bone morphology measured using micro-CT and dental CT. Further experiments are necessary to validate the use of dental CT on human bone.     

Validation of a voxel-based FE method for prediction of the uniaxial apparent modulus of human trabecular bone using macroscopic mechanical tests and nanoindentation

Assessment of the mechanical properties of trabecular bone is of major biological and clinical importance for the investigation of bone diseases, fractures and their treatments. Finite element (FE) methods are getting increasingly popular for quantifying the elastic and failure properties of trabecular bone. In particular, voxel-based FE methods have been previously used to calculate the effective elastic properties of trabecular microstructures. However, in most studies, bone tissue moduli were assumed or back-calculated to match the apparent elastic moduli from experiments, which often lead to surprisingly low values when compared to nanoindentation results. In this study, voxel-based FE analysis of trabecular bone is combined with physical measures of volume fraction, micro-CT (microCT) reconstructions, uniaxial mechanical tests and specimen-specific nanoindentation tests for proper validation of the method. Cylindrical specimens of cancellous bone were extracted from human femurs and their volume fraction determined with Archimede's method. Uniaxial apparent modulus of the specimens was measured with an improved tension-compression testing protocol that minimizes boundary artefacts. Their microCT reconstructions were segmented to match the measured bone volume fraction and used to create full-size voxel models with 30-45 microm element size. For each specimen, linear isotropic elastic material properties were defined based on specific nanoindentation measurements of its embedded bone tissue. Linear FE analyses were finally performed to simulate the uniaxial mechanical tests. Additional parametric analyses were performed to evaluate the potential errors on the predicted apparent modulus arising from variations in segmentation threshold, tissue modulus, and the use of 125-mm(3) cubic sub-regions. The results demonstrate an excellent correspondence between experimental measures and FE predictions of uniaxial apparent modulus. In conclusion, the adopted voxel-based FE approach is found to be a robust method to predict the linear elastic properties of human cancellous bone, provided segmentation of the microCT reconstructions is carefully calibrated, tissue modulus is known a priori and the entire region of interest is included in the analysis.     

Introduction and evaluation of a gray-value voxel conversion technique

In micro finite element analyses (microFEA) of cancellous bone, the 3D-imaging data that the FEA-models are based on, contain a range of gray-values. In the construction of the eventual FEA-model, these gray-values are commonly thresholded. Although thresholding is successful at small voxel sizes, at larger voxel sizes there is substantial loss of trabecular connectivity. We propose a new method: the gray-value method, where the microFEA-models use the information within the 3D-imaging data directly, without prior thresholding. Our question was twofold. First, how does the gray-value method compare to both plain and mass-compensated thresholding? Second, what is the effect of element size on the results obtained with the gray-value method? We used nine microCT-scans of human vertebral cancellous bone. These were degraded to represent different resolutions, and converted into microFEA-models using plain thresholding, mass-compensated thresholding, and the gray-value method. The apparent elastic moduli of the specimens were determined using microFEA. The different methods were compared on the basis of the apparent elastic moduli, compared to those calculated for a 28 microm reference model. The results showed that the gray-value method greatly improves the results relative to other methods. The gray-value method gives accurate predictions of the apparent elastic moduli, for voxel sizes up to one trabecular thickness (Tb.Th.). For voxel sizes greater than one Tb.Th. the accuracy, although still better than for both thresholding methods, becomes increasingly worse.