高黎贡山大塘白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用

2007年3月9日～4月6日,在高黎贡山自然保护区大塘片区调查白眉长臂猿生境利用行为.设置利用和可利用样地各30个.对定性因子的检验和Bonferroni置信区间分析表明,大塘片区白眉长臂猿偏爱在东坡 (阳坡) 和中下坡位活动.定量因子分析表明,利用和可利用样地中共有5个因子存在显著差异 (坡度、距水源距离、距道路距离、灌木平均高度和藤本密度).回归检验结果显示,坡度和藤本密度为影响大塘片区白眉长臂猿生境利用的主要因子.大塘片区白眉长臂猿对地理空间的选择反应了避风和趋向阳光的需求.在大塘,白眉长臂猿适宜栖息的植被有较高的均匀性.白眉长臂猿对高大乔木具有依赖性和选择偏好,对林下竹灌层的选择不高与植被分布均匀和人为干扰强度较小有关.藤本植物是白眉长臂猿在乔灌层之间活动的主要交通媒介和连接纽带.     

云南高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季食谱及活动时间分配初探

从2007年3月9日至4月14日,调查了高黎贡山赧亢的白眉长臂猿的食性和时间分配,旨在为该物种的栖息地保护和食物资源的管理提供指导.观察时,将白眉长臂猿的行为分为取食、移动、休息3种活动类型,利用瞬时扫描取样法取样记录,并记录取食种类及部位.白眉长臂猿春季取食植物种类共有10种,其中果实类植物3种,果汁类植物1种,嫩叶类植物6种.相对其它灵长类而言,其春季的食物多样性较低.白眉长臂猿移动、休息和取食的时间分配分别为33%、35%和32%,较叶猴属动物休息少,移动多.赧亢的白眉长臂猿1天中有3个觅食高峰期,9:00～10:00为第1个觅食高峰;11:00～13:00为第2个觅食高峰;16:00～17:00为第3个觅食高峰.而孟加拉国 Lawachara 的白眉长臂猿仅在早上有两次觅食高峰.这种差异可能是不同区域的白眉长臂猿对环境的适应结果.     

云南高黎贡山大塘东部白眉长臂猿鸣叫行为

通过2009年10月至2010年7月监测高黎贡山大塘的3群东部白眉长臂猿的鸣叫行为,收集了10个月(200d)的数据,发现东部白眉长臂猿的鸣叫行为主要发生在黎明后4h内;平均每次鸣叫持续14min59s,不同群体间鸣叫持续时间不同。天气情况影响东部白眉长臂猿的鸣叫开始时间(相对黎明)和持续时间,在雨天鸣叫相对黎明开始时间较晚,持续时间也较长。东部白眉长臂猿鸣叫频率在10月和11月明显高于其他月份,可能与食物(果实)的丰富度有关。根据研究结果,建议对东部白眉长臂猿的调查最好集中在10月或11月;每天监测时间至少持续至黎明后4h,以覆盖长臂猿90%以上的鸣叫;如果出现下雨天气,应适当延长调查时间。     

利用染色体涂染方法建立人和白眉长臂猿(Hylobates hoolock)的比较染色体图谱

除人Y染色体外,本文采用生物素标记的人全部整条染色体特异探针与白眉长臂猿(Hylobates hoolock)有丝分裂中期分裂相进行染色体原位杂交即染色体涂染法以研究人和白眉长臂猿染色体之间的同源性。在白眉长臂猿18对常染色体上检测出了与人22对常染色体同源的59对染色体片段,确定了人和白眉长臂猿之间的精度较高的染色体连锁群。结果表明:自人与白眉长臂猿的祖先分歧以来,大量的染色体间重排(至少发生了39次易位)和染色体内的重排导致了二者核型的差异。根据杂交结果绘制了首份人和白眉长臂猿比较染色体图谱,并结合已有的人和白掌长臂猿(Hylobates lar)(2n=44)和合趾长臂猿(Hylobates syndactylus)(2n=50)的比较染色体图谱对长臂猿属的染色体进化作了初步的探讨。     

高黎贡山大塘白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用及与赧亢的比较

2007年3月9日～4月7日调查了高黎贡山大塘片区白眉长臂猿的生境利用情况.对1雌1雄 (均为成体) 家群和1只雌性独猿跟踪观察.设置利用样地和对照样地各30个,测量了4个定性因子和19个定量因子.判别分析结果显示,在大塘影响白眉长臂猿春季生境利用的关键因子是藤本密度和坡度2个因子;影响赧亢与大塘白眉长臂猿的则是距空旷地距离、竹子平均高度和距水源距离等3个因子.据地形因子分析结果,大塘和赧亢的白眉长臂猿对避风和趋阳坡有共同需求.比较两地白眉长臂猿对与植被结构有关的8个生态因子的利用结果提示,赧亢适宜白眉长臂猿栖息的生境呈破碎化分布,而大塘的植被均匀性和完整性较高.两地白眉长臂猿对优势乔木的选择都具有相同的外貌形态特征,树形高大、树冠连续、郁闭度高的乔木可为它们提供更多的移动路线、更广的活动空间和更好的隐蔽条件.白眉长臂猿对两个分布区林下竹灌层选择差异的原因一方面是人为干扰强度不同所致,另一方面是对林下竹灌层的利用方式不同.藤本是白眉长臂猿在乔木层与竹灌层之间活动的主要交通媒介和连接纽带.人为干扰强度的不同亦是导致两地白眉长臂猿生境利用差异的重要原因之一.     

利用染色体涂染方法建立人和白眉长臂猿的比较染色体图谱

除人Ｙ染色体外,本文采用生物素标记的人全部整条染色体特异探针与白眉长臂猿有丝分裂中期分裂相进行染色体原位杂交即染色体涂染法以研究人和白眉长臂猿染色体之间的同源性。在白眉长臂猿１８对常染色体上检测出了与人２２对常染色体同源的５９对染色体片段,确定了人和白眉长臂猿之间的精度较高的染色体连锁群。结果表明：自人与白眉长臂猿的祖长分歧以来,大量的染色体间重排（至少发生了３９次易位）和染色体内的重排导致了二者     

两种长臂猿染色体的C带和Ag—NORs的比较研究

本文对长臂猿属中白眉长臂猿２ｎ＝３８和白颊长臂猿２ｎ＝５２的染色体Ｃ带和Ａｇ－ＮＯＲｓ进行了比较研究。结果表明,两种长臂猿的Ｃ带核型中除多数染色有着丝点Ｃ带外,一些染色体上还出现插入Ｃ带和着丝点Ｃ带弱化或减少现象;白眉长臂猿有全异染色质臂;白颊长臂猿有较多的端位Ｃ带。     

高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用

2006年3月24日—5月6日,在高黎贡山赧亢片区共设置利用样地与可利用样地各30个,跟踪观察白眉长臂猿栖息地利用行为。定性因子分析表明,白眉长臂猿偏爱在东坡(Ei=0.344)活动,可能与其能提供避风的温暖微生境有关;偏爱栓皮栎(Ei=0.455)和拟樱叶柃(Ei=0.068)等乔木,可能是由于这些树种的树冠面积大,可为白眉长臂猿提供连续的移动路线和大的活动空间。定量因子分析表明,利用和可利用样地中共有12个因子(坡度,乔木和竹平均高度,乔木平均胸围,乔木和灌木盖度,乔木、竹和藤本密度,距水源、道路和草果地距离)存在显著差异,说明白眉长臂猿对栖境的空间结构具有高度的选择性。判别分析结果显示,坡度、乔木平均胸围、竹密度、距水源距离和乔木平均高度是判别利用和可利用样地的关键因子,即为影响其生境利用的主要因子,判别正确率为98.3%。作为树栖灵长类,具有一定基面积的连续乔木[高度(14.14±3.19)m,胸围(90.72±26.12)cm]树冠层是白眉长臂猿的适宜生境;较大的坡度(39.98±8.10°)减少了来自地面的干扰;而竹林是白眉长臂猿春季重要的取食地。     

两种长臂猿染色体的C带和Ag－NORs的比较研究

本文对长臂猿属（Ｈｙｌｏｂａｔｅｓ）中白眉长臂猿（Ｈ．ｈｏｏｌｏｃｋ）２ｎ＝３８和白颊长臂猿（Ｈ．ｌｅｕｃｏｇｅｎｙｓ）２ｎ＝５２的染色体Ｃ带和Ａｇ－ＮＯＲｓ进行了比较研究。结果表明,两种长臂猿的Ｃ带核型中除多数染色体有着丝点Ｃ带外,一些染色体上还出现插入Ｃ带和着丝点Ｃ带弱化或减少现象;白眉长臂猿有全异染色质臂;白颊长臂猿有较多的端位Ｃ带。白眉长臂猿有两个Ａｇ－ＮＯＲｓ,而白颊长臂猿的Ａｇ－ＮＯＲｓ雌体有４个,雄体有５个,Ｙ染色体上有ＮＯＲ．本文对长臂猿的核型进化作了讨论。     

高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿食性及日取食量

通过确定白眉长臂猿的取食特征及日取食量,探讨不同个体间和春、秋季间日取食量是否存在差异,分析影响日取食量和取食特征的因素,为白眉长臂猿日能量需求及其营养容纳量研究奠定基础。2007—2008年春、秋季,在高黎贡山赧亢采用焦点动物取样法观察和记录数据。结果发现,白眉长臂猿取食36种食物的40个部位,其果实的食物单元、取食速度、单个鲜重值等取食特征不同于嫩叶。春、秋季白眉长臂猿每日取食果实量所占百分比最高、嫩叶所占百分比次之、茎和花所占百分比最低。春、秋季家群中雌猿的日取食量均高于雄猿。与家群的雌猿相比,独猿(♀)春季的日取食量稍高。在春季,独猿取食果实持续时间约为家群的2倍,而取食嫩叶的则与家群几乎相等。相同个体秋季的日取食量高于春季的,且春、秋季日取食各部位的量所占百分比也不同。分析结果表明,食性及日取食部位的量反映了白眉长臂猿选择食物的最基本策略。雌雄个体大小差异、能量消耗、食物特征、动物生理需求等因素影响白眉长臂猿的日取食量。白眉长臂猿取食持续时间与觅食树的食物资源量相关。     

Habitat Characteristics of the Endangered Hoolock Gibbons of Bangladesh: The Role of Plant Species Richness

Hoolock gibbons ( Hoolock hoolock ) are endangered small apes occurring in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and south China. All known populations have undergone declines primarily due to habitat destruction or alteration. We examined the influence of area of natural forests, area of plantations, area of agricultural land and edible plant species richness on the hoolock gibbon numbers from 22 sites in Bangladesh using multiple regression analysis. Area of natural forests and plantations were not linked to hoolock gibbon numbers, whereas area of agricultural land and edible plant species richness were both significantly linked. Higher edible plant species richness was directly related to hoolock gibbon numbers, while the area of agricultural land was inversely related. This is the first quantitative study illustrating the importance of these two variables with hoolock gibbon numbers. We also analyzed the existing habitat characteristics in two of the largest hoolock gibbon populations in Bangladesh: Lawachara (42 individuals) and Kaptai (84 individuals). Trees in Lawachara were generally smaller compared to those in Kaptai. Artocarpus , Tectona , and Dipterocarpus were the three most important genera in both sites, although Artocarpus was more important in Lawachara. Each site also had an abundant variety of tree species utilized by hoolock gibbons for food. We discuss the current context of primate conservation in Bangladesh and suggest that the current conservation priority for gibbons in the country should be protection and improvement of habitat.     

Seasonal variation of diet and time budget of Eastern hoolock gibbons (Hoolock leuconedys) living in a northern montane forest

Most gibbons dwell in the tropical forests of Southeastern Asia, but eastern hoolock gibbons (Hoolock leuconedys) survive in high montane forest ranging from 1,600 to 2,700 m a.s.l. in Gaoligongshan (>24°30′N), Yunnan, China. To assess the behavioral adaptations of hoolock gibbons to the montane forest, we related temperature and food availability within the habitat to the seasonal behavioral patterns of a family group and a solitary female between August 2010 and September 2011 in Nankang, Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve. The maximum temperature was 29.2 °C and the minimum temperature was ?0.3 °C during the period. The monthly mean temperature was <10 °C between December and February, making Nankang the coldest gibbon habitat reported so far. Nonfig fruit and fig availability declined to nearly zero in cold months. The family group increased resting and decreased travel and social behaviors when the monthly mean temperature was low. Compared with other gibbon populations, the hoolock gibbons spent proportionally less time feeding on figs and other fruit than other gibbon populations except Nomascus concolor and Symphalangus syndactylus. Only 36 species of plants provided nonfig fruit or figs, which is less than the number of fruit species consumed by any other gibbon population observed during a similar period of time (about 1 year). Hoolock gibbons shifted their diet to leaves and increased feeding time when fruit was not available. We conclude that diet flexibility and an energy-conserving strategy during the cold season when fruit is scarce have enabled the hoolock gibbons to survive in a northern montane forest.     

Habitat characterization of western hoolock gibbons Hoolock hoolock by examining home range microhabitat use

Conserving a species depends on an understanding of its habitat requirements. Primatologists often characterize the habitat requirements of primates using macroscale population-based approaches relying on correlations between habitat attributes and population abundances between sites with varying levels of disturbance. This approach only works for species spread between several populations. The populations of some primates do not fulfill these criteria, forcing researchers to rely on individual-based (microscale) rather than population-based approaches for habitat characterization. We examined the reliability of using micro-scale habitat characterizations by studying the microhabitat preferences of a group of wild western hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock) in order to compare our results to the habitat preferences of western hoolock gibbons identified during a macroscale study of populations across Bangladesh. We used stepwise discriminant analysis to differentiate between the areas of low, medium, and high usage based on microhabitat characteristics (tree species availability, altitude, canopy connection, distance from forest edge, and levels of human disturbance). The gibbons used interior forest habitat with low food tree availability most frequently for sleeping and socializing, and used edge habitat containing high food tree availability for medium periods for feeding. These results indicate that the gibbons prefer interior forest but are frequently forced to visit the forest edge to feed. Therefore, the optimal habitat would be interior forest away from human disturbance with high sleeping-tree and feeding-tree availability. These habitat preferences are consistent with the habitat attributes of Bangladesh’s largest remaining western hoolock gibbon populations, which live in areas containing low agricultural encroachment and high food-tree availability. Microhabitat use studies can be used to characterize the habitat requirements of a species, but should include multiple scales of analysis wherever possible.     

The first finding of chromosome variations in wild-born western hoolock gibbons

Hoolock gibbons (genus Hoolock) are a group of very endangered primate species that belong to the small ape family (family Hylobatidae). The entire population that is distributed in the northeast and southeast of Bangladesh is estimated to include only around 350 individuals. A conservation program is thus necessary as soon as possible. Genetic markers are significant tools for planning such programs. In this study, we examined chromosomal characteristics of two western hoolock gibbons that were captured in a Bangladesh forest. During chromosome analysis, we encountered two chromosome variations that were observed for the first time in the wild-born western hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock). The first one was a nonhomologous centromere position in chromosome 8 that was observed in the two examined individuals. The alteration was identical in the two individuals, which were examined by G-band and DAPI-band analyses. Chromosome paint analyses revealed that the difference in the centromere position was due to a single small pericentric inversion. The second variation was a heterozygous elongation in chromosome 9. Analysis by sequential techniques of fluorescence in situ hybridization with 18S rDNA and silver nitrate staining revealed a single and an inverted tandem duplication, respectively, of the nucleolus organizer region in two individuals. These chromosome variations provide useful information for the next steps to consider the evolution and conservation of the hoolock gibbon.     

Survey of Hylobates agilis albibarbis in a logged peat-swamp forest: Sabangau catchment, Central Kalimantan

Few data are available on gibbon populations in peat-swamp forest. In order to assess the importance of this habitat for gibbon conservation, a population of Hylobates agilis albibarbis was surveyed in the Sabangau peat-swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. This is an area of about 5,500 km² of selectively logged peat-swamp forest, which was formally gazetted as a national park during 2005. The study was conducted during June and July 2004 using auditory sampling methods. Five sample areas were selected and each was surveyed for four consecutive days by three teams of researchers at designated listening posts. Researchers recorded compass bearings of, and estimated distances to, singing groups. Nineteen groups were located. Population density is estimated to be 2.16 (±0.46) groups/km². Sightings occurring either at the listening posts or that were obtained by tracking in on calling groups yielded a mean group size of 3.4 individuals, hence individual gibbon density is estimated to be 7.4 (±1.59) individuals/km². The density estimates fall at the mid-range of those calculated for other gibbon populations, thus suggesting that peat-swamp forest is an important habitat for gibbon conservation in Borneo. A tentative extrapolation of results suggests a potential gibbon population size of 19,000 individuals within the mixed-swamp forest habitat sub-type in the Sabangau. This represents one of the largest remaining continuous populations of Bornean agile gibbons. The designation of the Sabangau forest as a national park will hopefully address the problem of illegal logging and hunting in the region. Further studies should note any difference in gibbon density post protection.     

Conserved chromosome segments in Hylobates hoolock revealed by human and H. leucogenys paint probes.

A complete comparative chromosome map of the white-browed gibbon (Hylobates hoolock, 2n = 38), white-cheeked gibbon (Hylobates leucogenys, 2n = 52), and human has been established by hybridising H. leucogenys chromosome-specific paints and human 24-colour paints onto H. hoolock metaphase chromosomes. In the 18 H. hoolock autosomes, we identified 62 conserved segments that showed DNA homology to regions of the 25 H. leucogenys autosomes. Numerous interchromosomal rearrangements differentiate the karyotypes of H. leucogenys and H. hoolock. Only H. hoolock chromosome 10 showed homology to one entire autosome of H. leucogenys. The hybridisation of human 24-colour paints not only confirmed most of the chromosome correspondences between human and H. hoolock established previously but also helped to correct five erroneous assignments and revealed three new segments. Our results demonstrate that the karyotypes of the extant gibbons have arisen mainly through extensive translocation events and that the karyotype of H. hoolock more closely resembles the ancestral karyotype of Hylobates, rather than the karyotype of H. leucogenys.     

笼养白眉长臂猿的繁殖初探

本文报道了白眉长臂猿（Ｈｙｌｏｂａｔｅｓ ｈｏｏｌｏｃｋ）在笼养条件下繁殖成功。经过笼养条件下３例白眉长臂猿繁殖结果的分析认为：舭舒环境、饲养、雌雄猿的配对以及雌猿自身哺育幼仔能力等,呈影响繁殖能否成功的因素。     

Comparison of point transect distance and traditional acoustic point-count sampling of hoolock gibbons in Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary,Myanmar

Effective conservation demands more accurate and reliable methods of survey and monitoring of populations. Surveys of gibbon populations have relied mostly on mapping of groups in “listening areas” using acoustical point-count data. Traditional methods of estimating density in have usually used counts of gibbon groups within fixed-radius areas or areas bounded by terrain barriers to sound transmission, and have not accounted for possible decline in detectability with distance. In this study we sampled the eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leucogenys) population in Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary (WS), Myanmar, using two methods: the traditional point-count method with fixed-radius listening areas, and a newer method using point-transect Distance analysis from a sample point established in the center of each listening point array. The basic data were obtained by triangulating on singing groups from four LPs for 4 days, in 10 randomly selected sample areas within the sanctuary. The point transect method gave an average density of 3.13 groups km⁻², higher than the estimates of group density within fixed-radius areas without correction for detectability. A new method of analysis of singing probability per day (p[1]) gave an estimate of 0.547. Htamanthi WS is an important conservation area containing an estimated 7000 (95% confidence interval: 5000–10,000) hoolock groups. Surveys at Htamanthi WS and locations in the Hukaung Valley suggest that the extensive evergreen forests in northern Myanmar have the capacity to support 2–4 (average about 3) groups of hoolock gibbons per km², but most forests in its range have yet to be surveyed.     

广西邦亮东黑冠长臂猿新群体的发现及种群数量现状

东黑冠长臂猿是极度濒危物种,全球种群数量极其稀少。2015年5月和8月,采用在固定地点监听鸣叫的方法在广西邦亮长臂猿国家级自然保护区内对东黑冠长臂猿开展两次实地调查,发现在中国境内形成了由1只成年雄性,2只成年雌性和1只婴猿组成的新群体。这是自2006年该物种在中国被重新发现后,首次在中国境内发现形成新群体。中国境内东黑冠长臂猿的种群数量也由3群22只,增长到4群26只。有限的栖息地可能是未来限制东黑冠长臂猿新群体形成的主要因素之一,所以栖息地恢复对东黑冠长臂猿种群数量增长尤为重要。放牧不利于栖息地恢复,要逐步减少,进而杜绝在保护区内放牧。另外,东黑冠长臂猿跨国界分布,中越两国政府之间应加强协调,避免在保护区内实施对栖息地不利的边境管理活动。如果两国间出现种群隔离,对东黑冠长臂猿种群数量的增长将会非常不利。