路径依赖下的物种形成机制

生物科学几乎所有研究都需要物种概念作为基础, 生物多样性研究亦需要可操作的物种概念, 但现有物种概念存在不同程度的人为因素或难操作性, 对物种划分造成不利影响。本文引入“进化路径”这一概念, 说明适合度景观时刻变化着, 物种在每个进化时间点上依据瞬时适合度选择下一时刻的进化状态, 且总是沿着动态适合度景观中适合度增加的方向进化。基于演化博弈的方法, 以随机过程为例模拟物种的进化过程。进而提出路径依赖下的物种形成机制, 并在此基础上给出可操作的物种定义, 即: 针对基因、性状、生态过程等任一状态下两个群体内个体的多个变量做统计分析, 若群体之间同时在两个或多个维度状态下呈现出的不连续性d大于群体内变量呈现出的差异性σ_k, 则拥有相应变量的个体属于不同物种。     

数量遗传学理论框架下的进化生态学研究：以动物模型的运用为例

目前,生态学家越来越关注深入的生物学问题,例如,1)理解生态和进化过程的互作和关系;2)种群中一个重要的表型特征,受遗传基因影响多大?即其可遗传程度,表示该性状的进化潜能;3)基因是怎样影响表型性状,及其对应的个体适合度以及种群动态?4)决定多个重要表型性状的基因之间关系和互作如何?随着生物统计软件尤其是线性混合模型的发展,结合经典数量遗传学的理论,发展出了针对上述问题的动物模型(Animal Model),使得我们可以对野外种群进行上述研究。本文首先介绍了经典数量遗传学的重要概念,随后在其理论框架下,举例介绍了动物模型的操作和使用,最后探讨和展望了利用数量遗传学方法进行进化生态学研究的前景。     

“一带一路”与生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享: 关联、路径与策略

“一带一路”倡议的提出具有重要的时代意义和深远的历史影响。“一带一路”的持续推进和贯彻落实也使得其发展面向和具体内容日趋多元和丰富。生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享已成为全球生物多样性领域长期、持续关注的焦点领域和热门话题, 其在理念、目标、方式与主体等方面与“一带一路”高度契合。对于中国而言, 在“一带一路”背景下开展生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享应选择双边路径为主、多边路径为辅的方案。未来“一带一路”倡议下中国与沿线国家开展生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享可能的策略包括：提出地区或区域性生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享行动规划, 实施地区或区域性生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享行动倡议, 持续推动国内生物遗传资源获取管制法律和监管体制创设, 开展生物遗传资源获取和惠益分享能力建设项目。     

一类进化分布动态模型及其应用

文章介绍了一类用以描述由自然选择作用引起物种表型进化的动态模型。该模型通过反应扩散方程和积分微分方程表达种群内不同表型特性间可能的竞争、利用与互惠等生态作用, 进而导致可能的定向和分歧选择, 从而实现表型特征的收敛和分岔动态, 形成种内和种间的多样化。通过举例和数值模拟发现, 该模型对于解释同域物种形成和生物间相互作用对表型进化的影响具有重要的理论价值。文章进一步说明表型特征的稳定进化分布与进化稳定对策理论的一致性。     

多倍体植物混合倍性种群的建立机制研究进展

基因组多倍化是物种形成和进化的重要驱动力, 几乎所有植物都经历过至少一次基因组加倍。然而, 由于多倍体植株比二倍体表现出更高的死亡率, 多倍化机制被认为是植物进化的“死胡同”。一些植物物种具有自然混合倍性种群, 即同一物种具有不同倍性, 这为揭示多倍体的进化机制提供了最佳途径。本文从基因组加倍形成多倍体植物开始, 综述了混合倍性种群的形成、建立与维持的研究进展, 探讨了多倍体适应自然环境的种群分化而形成多倍体物种的机制。研究自然混合倍性种群的倍性组成、重复基因的功能分化以及多倍体的生态位分化, 有利于明确混合倍性自然种群的生态适应与维持机理, 以及多倍体植物的进化机制。     

“整合物种概念”和“分化路上的物种”

已有的各个物种概念对物种的认识类似盲人摸象, 只包含了物种的某一个方面; 而一个分化后期的成熟物种应涵盖了所有的物种概念。但是, 尚未到达分化后期的物种往往又已开始新一轮的物种分化; 自然中存在的多数“物种”处于分化路上。这种循环往复连续分化产生的物种, 存在种间生殖隔离不彻底、基因流频繁发生、网状进化突出等现象。此外, 对于不同的物种对, 最早开始分化的基因以及不同物种概念所要求的条件的分化顺序不是统一的, 而是随机的。定义一个适合所有“分化路上的物种”概念存在较大困难。但是, 应采用尽可能多的物种概念来界定分化路上的物种、发表新种和进行分类处理; 也应承认种间可能广泛存在不完全的生殖隔离和有限的基因流, 即有不属于两个物种群体的杂交或回交个体的存在。这样划分的物种比只依据一个物种概念认定的物种具有更高的客观性和科学性。     

分子进化与中立说

生物进化的研究向来是以生物的表型为对象的,如蕨类植物的维管束,马的脚趾,哺乳动物的齿冠等,都是用古生物学方法来研究的。生物的进化当然是由自然选择理论来说明的,不过这些都是定性的说明而已。 用定量方法研究进化论,是从群体遗传学的理论研究开始的。种的进化不仅是个体水平的变化,主要是整个群体的遗传变化。例如某个种的一个基因变化     

为什么在物种概念上难以达成共识?

生物学家通常认为物种是生命多样性的基本单位。然而, 尽管近一个世纪以来生物学家们不断地讨论物种概念问题, 但到目前为止仍然难以形成共识。大多数生物学家关注如何定义物种主要是因为它有非常重要的实践意义, 所以, 不同学者提出的物种概念在很大程度上是基于实践应用上的可操作性, 并且其视角难免受其专业见地以及对形成新物种的进化过程的认识所影响。物种代表了进化过程的一个阶段, 而且不同的“物种”可能处于物种形成这个进化过程的不同阶段。鉴于“定义”实际上是一种类似协议的约定或界定, 任何定义都是一种带有局限性的概括, 因此我们可能很难建立一个与分类实践中千变万化的情况都能完全匹配协调的物种定义。已经提出来的那些物种概念或定义都有其合理性, 但是也没有一个是完美无缺的。认识到这一点很重要, 否则就可能会因为固执地坚持某一特定的物种概念而在物种界定和进化研究中自觉或不自觉地引入错误甚至制造混乱。     

适应性演化的分子遗传机制：以高海拔适应为例

自达尔文时代起,解析适应性演化的机制一直是进化生物学和生态学领域研究最重要的科学问题之一。适应性演化通常指在自然选择驱动下,物种为提高适合度而演化出特定的表型。表型的适应表现在形态、生理生化、组织学、行为学等多个层级。随着分子生物学和测序技术的发展,越来越多的研究揭示了适应性复杂性状的遗传基础。研究适应性演化的分子遗传机制有助于理解塑造生物多样性的进化驱动力以及阐明基因型、表型和环境之间的关联关系。目前已有主效基因、超基因、多基因遗传、非编码区调控、重复序列调控、基因渐渗等多种假说可以解释适应性演化的遗传机制。高海拔极端环境的强选择压力极大地促进了物种表型和遗传适应的发生,对多组学数据的剖析为物种适应性演化提供了新的见解。本文对适应性演化的遗传机制、高海拔极端环境适应研究进展以及目前面临的主要挑战进行了综述,并对未来的发展趋势进行了展望,以期为该领域的科研人员提供参考。     

生命之树及其应用

生命之树的概念由达尔文在1859年提出, 用以反映分类群的亲缘关系和进化历史。近30年来, 随着建树性状种类的多样化、数据量的快速增长以及建树方法的不断发展和完善, 生命之树的规模越来越大, 可信度也越来越高。分子生物学、生态学、基因组学、生物信息学及计算机科学等的快速发展, 使得生命之树成为开展学科间交叉研究的桥梁, 其用途日益广泛。本文综述了生命之树研究的历史和现状, 介绍了生命之树在以下几个方面的应用: (1)通过构建不同尺度的生命之树, 理解生物类群间的系统发育关系; (2)通过时间估算和地理分布区重建, 推测现存生物的起源和地理分布格局及其成因; (3)基于时间树, 结合生态、环境因子及关键创新性状, 探讨生物的多样化进程和成因; (4)揭示生物多样性的来源和格局, 预测生物多样性动态变化, 并提出相应的保护策略。最后, 本文评估了生命之树在目前海量数据情况下遇到的序列比对困难、基因树冲突、“流浪类群”干扰等建树难题, 并指出了构建“超大树”的发展趋势。     

A gene's ability to buffer variation is predicted by its fitness contribution and genetic interactions

Background

Many single-gene knockouts result in increased phenotypic (e.g., morphological) variability among the mutant''s offspring. This has been interpreted as an intrinsic ability of genes to buffer genetic and environmental variation. A phenotypic capacitor is a gene that appears to mask phenotypic variation: when knocked out, the offspring shows more variability than the wild type. Theory predicts that this phenotypic potential should be correlated with a gene''s knockout fitness and its number of negative genetic interactions. Based on experimentally measured phenotypic capacity, it was suggested that knockout fitness was unimportant, but that phenotypic capacitors tend to be hubs in genetic and physical interaction networks.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We re-analyse the available experimental data in a combined model, which includes knockout fitness and network parameters as well as expression level and protein length as predictors of phenotypic potential. Contrary to previous conclusions, we find that the strongest predictor is in fact haploid knockout fitness (responsible for 9% of the variation in phenotypic potential), with an additional contribution from the genetic interaction network (5%); once these two factors are taken into account, protein-protein interactions do not make any additional contribution to the variation in phenotypic potential.

Conclusions/Significance

We conclude that phenotypic potential is not a mysterious “emergent” property of cellular networks. Instead, it is very simply determined by the overall fitness reduction of the organism (which in its compromised state can no longer compensate for multiple factors that contribute to phenotypic variation), and by the number (and presumably nature) of genetic interactions of the knocked-out gene. In this light, Hsp90, the prototypical phenotypic capacitor, may not be representative: typical phenotypic capacitors are not direct “buffers” of variation, but are simply genes encoding central cellular functions.     

Fisher’s Geometrical Model Emerges as a Property of Complex Integrated Phenotypic Networks

Models relating phenotype space to fitness (phenotype–fitness landscapes) have seen important developments recently. They can roughly be divided into mechanistic models (e.g., metabolic networks) and more heuristic models like Fisher’s geometrical model. Each has its own drawbacks, but both yield testable predictions on how the context (genomic background or environment) affects the distribution of mutation effects on fitness and thus adaptation. Both have received some empirical validation. This article aims at bridging the gap between these approaches. A derivation of the Fisher model “from first principles” is proposed, where the basic assumptions emerge from a more general model, inspired by mechanistic networks. I start from a general phenotypic network relating unspecified phenotypic traits and fitness. A limited set of qualitative assumptions is then imposed, mostly corresponding to known features of phenotypic networks: a large set of traits is pleiotropically affected by mutations and determines a much smaller set of traits under optimizing selection. Otherwise, the model remains fairly general regarding the phenotypic processes involved or the distribution of mutation effects affecting the network. A statistical treatment and a local approximation close to a fitness optimum yield a landscape that is effectively the isotropic Fisher model or its extension with a single dominant phenotypic direction. The fit of the resulting alternative distributions is illustrated in an empirical data set. These results bear implications on the validity of Fisher’s model’s assumptions and on which features of mutation fitness effects may vary (or not) across genomic or environmental contexts.     

The stationary distribution of a continuously varying strategy in a class-structured population under mutation-selection-drift balance

Many traits and/or strategies expressed by organisms are quantitative phenotypes. Because populations are of finite size and genomes are subject to mutations, these continuously varying phenotypes are under the joint pressure of mutation, natural selection and random genetic drift. This article derives the stationary distribution for such a phenotype under a mutation-selection-drift balance in a class-structured population allowing for demographically varying class sizes and/or changing environmental conditions. The salient feature of the stationary distribution is that it can be entirely characterized in terms of the average size of the gene pool and Hamilton's inclusive fitness effect. The exploration of the phenotypic space varies exponentially with the cumulative inclusive fitness effect over state space, which determines an adaptive landscape. The peaks of the landscapes are those phenotypes that are candidate evolutionary stable strategies and can be determined by standard phenotypic selection gradient methods (e.g. evolutionary game theory, kin selection theory, adaptive dynamics). The curvature of the stationary distribution provides a measure of the stability by convergence of candidate evolutionary stable strategies, and it is evaluated explicitly for two biological scenarios: first, a coordination game, which illustrates that, for a multipeaked adaptive landscape, stochastically stable strategies can be singled out by letting the size of the gene pool grow large; second, a sex-allocation game for diploids and haplo-diploids, which suggests that the equilibrium sex ratio follows a Beta distribution with parameters depending on the features of the genetic system.     

Expected relative fitness and the adaptive topography of fluctuating selection

Wright's adaptive topography describes gene frequency evolution as a maximization of mean fitness in a constant environment. I extended this to a fluctuating environment by unifying theories of stochastic demography and fluctuating selection, assuming small or moderate fluctuations in demographic rates with a stationary distribution, and weak selection among the types. The demography of a large population, composed of haploid genotypes at a single locus or normally distributed phenotypes, can then be approximated as a diffusion process and transformed to produce the dynamics of population size, N, and gene frequency, p, or mean phenotype, . The expected evolution of p or is a product of genetic variability and the gradient of the long-run growth rate of the population, , with respect to p or . This shows that the expected evolution maximizes , the mean Malthusian fitness in the average environment minus half the environmental variance in population growth rate. Thus, as a function of p or represents an adaptive topography that, despite environmental fluctuations, does not change with time. The haploid model is dominated by environmental stochasticity, so the expected maximization is not realized. Different constraints on quantitative genetic variability, and stabilizing selection in the average environment, allow evolution of the mean phenotype to undergo a stochastic maximization of . Although the expected evolution maximizes the long-run growth rate of the population, for a genotype or phenotype the long-run growth rate is not a valid measure of fitness in a fluctuating environment. The haploid and quantitative character models both reveal that the expected relative fitness of a type is its Malthusian fitness in the average environment minus the environmental covariance between its growth rate and that of the population.     

How selection affects phenotypic fluctuation

The large degree of phenotypic fluctuation among isogenic cells highlighted by recent studies on stochastic gene expression confers fitness on some individuals through a ‘bet‐hedging’ strategy, when faced with different selective environments. Under a single selective environment, the fluctuation may be suppressed through evolution, as it prevents maintenance of individuals around the fittest state and/or function. However, as fluctuation can increase phenotypic diversity, similar to mutation, it may contribute to the survival of individuals even under a single selective environment. To discuss whether the fluctuation increases over the course of evolution, cycles of mutation and selection for higher GFP fluorescence were carried out in Escherichia coli. Mutant genotypes possessing broad GFP fluorescence distributions with low average values emerged under strong selection pressure. These ‘broad mutants’ appeared independently on the phylogenetic tree and increased fluctuations in GFP fluorescence were attributable to the variance in mRNA abundance. In addition to the average phenotypic change by genetic mutation, the observed increase in phenotypic fluctuation acts as an evolutionary strategy to produce an extreme phenotype under severe selective environments.     

Selection on skewed characters and the paradox of stasis

Observed phenotypic responses to selection in the wild often differ from predictions based on measurements of selection and genetic variance. An overlooked hypothesis to explain this paradox of stasis is that a skewed phenotypic distribution affects natural selection and evolution. We show through mathematical modeling that, when a trait selected for an optimum phenotype has a skewed distribution, directional selection is detected even at evolutionary equilibrium, where it causes no change in the mean phenotype. When environmental effects are skewed, Lande and Arnold's (1983) directional gradient is in the direction opposite to the skew. In contrast, skewed breeding values can displace the mean phenotype from the optimum, causing directional selection in the direction of the skew. These effects can be partitioned out using alternative selection estimates based on average derivatives of individual relative fitness, or additive genetic covariances between relative fitness and trait (Robertson–Price identity). We assess the validity of these predictions using simulations of selection estimation under moderate sample sizes. Ecologically relevant traits may commonly have skewed distributions, as we here exemplify with avian laying date — repeatedly described as more evolutionarily stable than expected — so this skewness should be accounted for when investigating evolutionary dynamics in the wild.     

Heterosis in age‐specific selected populations of a seed beetle: Sex differences in longevity and reproductive behavior

We tested mutation accumulation hypothesis for the evolution of senescence using short‐lived and long‐lived populations of the seed‐feeding beetle, Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say), obtained by selection on early‐ and late‐life for many generations. The expected consequence of the mutation accumulation hypothesis is that in short‐lived populations, where the force of natural selection is the strongest early in life, the late‐life fitness traits should decline due to genetic drift which increases the frequency of mutations with deleterious effects in later adult stages. Since it is unlikely that identical deleterious mutations will increase in several independent populations, hybrid vigor for late‐life fitness is expected in offspring obtained in crosses among populations selected for early‐life fitness traits. We tested longevity of both sexes, female fecundity and male reproductive behavior for hybrid vigor by comparing hybrid and nonhybrid short‐lived populations. Hybrid vigor was confirmed for male virility, mating speed and copulation duration, and longevity of both sexes at late ages. In contrast to males, the results on female fecundity in short‐lived populations did not support mutation accumulation as a genetic mechanism for the evolution of this trait. Contrary to the prediction of this hypothesis, male mating ability indices and female fecundity in long‐lived populations exhibited hybrid vigor at all assayed age classes. We demonstrate that nonhybrid long‐lived populations diverged randomly regarding female and male reproductive fitness, indicating that sexually antagonistic selection, when accompanied with genetic drift for female fecundity and male virility, might be responsible for overriding natural selection in the independently evolving long‐lived populations.     

Strong and consistent natural selection associated with armour reduction in sticklebacks

Measuring the strength of natural selection is tremendously important in evolutionary biology, but remains a challenging task. In this work, we analyse the characteristics of selection for a morphological change (lateral-plate reduction) in the threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus. Adaptation to freshwater, leading with the reduction or loss of the bony lateral armour, has occurred in parallel on numerous occasions in this species. Completely-plated and low-plated sticklebacks were introduced into a pond, and the phenotypic changes were tracked for 20 years. Fish from the last generation were genotyped for the Ectodysplasin-A (Eda) locus, the major gene involved in armour development. We found a strong fitness advantage for the freshwater-type fish (on average, 20% fitness advantage for the freshwater morph, and 92% for the freshwater genotype). The trend is best explained by assuming that this fitness advantage is maximum at the beginning of the invasion and decreases with time. Such fitness differences provide a quantifiable example of rapid selection-driven phenotypic evolution associated with environmental change in a natural population.     

Insecticide resistance enhances male reproductive success in a beetle

Abstract.— Malathion-specific resistance in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum , is widespread and stable in natural populations even in the absence of pesticide exposure. To understand this stability, both resistant and susceptible males were placed in competition for susceptible female fertilization. Females were then isolated and their progeny was tested for malathion susceptibility. Male reproductive success was estimated for populations originating from different geographic areas and for isogenic strains. In most cases, resistant males had a greater reproductive success rate than susceptibles. The results suggest that male reproductive success is not traded against the selection for malathion resistance, even resistant individuals are at an advantage for this fitness trait. This absence of fitness cost may be the result of postselection of (1) modifier gene which ameliorate the fitness of resistant individuals or (2) nondeleterious resistance gene. Resistant phenotype superiority could be due to increased male mating success, improved ability of resistant males in sperm competition, female mate choice, and/or cryptic female choice of resistance gene(s). The effect of male phenotypic frequency on male reproductive success was also examined. We observed that male fertilization success is frequency dependent and inversely related to their frequency. However, this "rare male" advantage did not counteract the superiority of the resistant males.     

Riding across the selection landscape: fitness consequences of annual variation in reproductive characteristics

Evolutionary models estimating phenotypic selection in character size usually assume that the character is invariant across reproductive bouts. We show that variation in the size of reproductive traits may be large over multiple events and can influence fitness in organisms where these traits are produced anew each season. With data from populations of two orchid species, Caladenia valida and Tolumnia variegata, we used Bayesian statistics to investigate the effect on the distribution in fitness of individuals when the fitness landscape is not flat and when characters vary across reproductive bouts. Inconsistency in character size across reproductive periods within an individual increases the uncertainty of mean fitness and, consequently, the uncertainty in individual fitness. The trajectory of selection is likely to be muddled as a consequence of variation in morphology of individuals across reproductive bouts. The frequency and amplitude of such changes will certainly affect the dynamics between selection and genetic drift.