阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖引发巨噬细胞炎症反应的机制研究

目的:阐明阿仑膦酸钠以及阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖引发巨噬细胞炎症反应的分子机制,进一步探究双膦酸盐类药物相关性颌骨坏死发生的相关机制。方法:选取小鼠单核巨噬细胞白血病细胞Raw264.7和小鼠骨髓来源的巨噬细胞BMDM作为细胞模型,分为对照组、脂多糖组、阿仑膦酸钠组以及阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖组,分别检测Caspase1,IL-1β及IL-18的表达水平,用Western blot检测Raw264.7细胞中Caspase1的蛋白水平变化,用流式观察BMDM细胞中Caspase1荧光强度变化。结果:除了BMDM细胞中阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖组IL-1β的表达水平相比阿仑膦酸钠组没有增加外(P0.05),Raw264.7和BMDM细胞中阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖组Caspase1,IL-1β及IL-18的m RNA表达水平均高于对照组(P0.05)和阿仑膦酸钠组(P0.05)。Raw264.7细胞中阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖组cleaved Caspase 1蛋白表达水平最高。BMDM细胞中阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖组Caspase 1荧光强度最高。然而加入组蛋白去甲基化酶抑制剂GSK-J4后,在Raw264.7和BMDM细胞中,阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖组Caspase1,IL-1β及IL-18的m RNA表达水平均有下降(P0.05)。结论:阿仑膦酸钠联合脂多糖可以加剧阿仑膦酸钠的炎症反应,促进Caspase1,IL-1β及IL-18的表达,并在一定程度受到表观遗传的调控,提示感染及炎症因素可能对双膦酸盐类药物相关性颌骨坏死(BRONJ)的发生发展具有促进作用,同时提示我们可以在表观遗传方向寻找治疗BRONJ的新靶点。     

FABP4对脂多糖诱导Kupffer细胞NF-κB活化和炎症的影响

目的:研究脂肪型脂肪酸结合蛋白(FABP4)对脂多糖(LPS)诱导Kupffer细胞(KCs)NF-κB通路活化和炎症反应的影响。方法:通过梯度离心的方法分离大鼠KCs,按照1×10~5接种于6孔板,贴壁后饥饿24 h,不同浓度脂多糖(LPS,0、5、10和20ng/mL)刺激24 h,提取蛋白和RNA,通过Western-Blot检测NF-κB通路蛋白表达变化,利用荧光定量PCR检测IL-1β和IL-6m RNA表达变化;利用RNAi沉默KCs FABP4表达,通过Western-Blot和荧光定量PCR检测其对LPS诱导NF-κB通路活化的影响;分别利用FABP4细胞因子刺激和慢病毒上调FABP4的表达,通过Western-Blot和荧光定量PCR检测其对KCs NF-κB通路和炎症反应的影响。结果:LPS能够以浓度依赖的方式(0、5、10和20 ng/m L)诱导KCs FABP4 m RNA和蛋白的表达,以20 ng/mL最为明显(P0.05);沉默FABP4可以显著减弱LPS(20 ng/m L)诱导的p-p65和p-IκBα的表达,以及炎症细胞因子IL-1β和IL-6的释放(P0.05);外源性FABP4(10 ng/mL和20 ng/m L)刺激24h后,能够明显诱导p-p65和p-IκBα的表达,促进炎症因子(IL-1β和IL-6)的合成(P0.05);利用慢病毒上调FABP4,可以显著诱导p-p65和p-IκBα的表达以及炎症因子(IL-1β和IL-6)的表达(P0.05),而抗氧化剂NAC(10μM)处理,则显著减弱此效应(P0.05)。结论:FABP4介导了LPS刺激KCs NF-κB通路的活化和炎症反应。     

非洲猪瘟病毒C717R蛋白诱导小鼠炎症应答

【目的】通过炎症应答系统筛选,发现非洲猪瘟病毒(African swine fever virus, ASFV) C717R蛋白可诱导炎症反应,本研究旨在首次鉴定C717R蛋白功能,通过构建C717R重组慢病毒并感染BALB/c小鼠,探究其对炎症应答产生的影响。【方法】通过炎症小体表达系统筛选出诱导炎症应答的C717R蛋白,并构建C717R重组慢病毒。利用C717R重组慢病毒感染小鼠,使C717R在小鼠组织中表达。经实时荧光定量、蛋白质免疫印迹等方法检测C717R慢病毒包装、蛋白表达以及促炎细胞因子TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6、IFN-β的变化。【结果】C717R蛋白在小鼠组织中正常表达。酶联免疫吸附测定(enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA)检测发现,表达C717R蛋白的小鼠,血清中促炎细胞因子TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6、IFN-β及IFN-γ分泌水平显著升高。实时荧光定量检测表达C717R蛋白的小鼠组织证实,C717R、TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6的mRNA转录水平显著上调;蛋白质免疫印迹证实,C717R可诱导小鼠不同组织caspase-1和IL-1β的成熟。组织病理切片结果显示,表达C717R蛋白的BALB/c小鼠和对照组和相比,肝脏、心脏、肺脏等器官炎性细胞浸润程度较对照组更严重。【结论】ASFV的C717R蛋白表达诱导BALB/c小鼠产生炎症应答,为鉴定和阐明C717R蛋白介导的促炎新机制提供了重要依据。     

小鼠CTRP6基因缺失对LPS介导的急性炎症反应的影响

C1q/肿瘤坏死因子相关蛋白6(CTRP6)是一种新型脂肪细胞因子,不仅对动物脂代谢具有重要的调控作用,还参与机体的炎症反应。该文以CTRP6基因敲除鼠(CTRP6–/–)为材料,通过腹腔注射脂多糖(LPS)建立急性炎症反应模型,旨在分析CTRP6在炎症反应中的作用。首先,取2月龄雄性CTRP6–/–(KO)小鼠,随机分为2组(5只/组):LPS处理组和生理盐水组,分别以WT鼠为对照。利用Real-time PCR和ELISA分析LPS对WT小鼠机体内CTRP6表达水平的影响,发现LPS刺激后WT小鼠各组织及血清中CTRP6的表达水平均下降,表明CTRP6基因与LPS诱导的急性炎症反应密切相关。接下来,对比两种基因型小鼠发现, KO组小鼠注射LPS后,其炎症因子TNF-α和IL-1β升高水平显著低于WT对照组。进一步通过肺部切片HE染色和肺组织干湿比评估炎症反应对肺的损伤程度,发现KO组小鼠的肺损伤程度显著低于WT小鼠。最后,在体外,利用LPS刺激骨髓来源的巨噬细胞,两种基因型巨噬细胞的炎症因子表达水平均显著升高,但CTRP6–/–型巨噬细胞的炎症因子升高水平以及NF-κB的磷酸化升高水平均显著低于WT型巨噬细胞。综上所述, CTRP6基因与机体炎症反应密切相关, CTRP6基因缺失导致小鼠对LPS的应答减弱,缓解了急性炎症反应对机体造成的伤害。     

连翘脂素对LPS诱导RAW264.7细胞炎症反应的影响

为研究连翘脂素的抗炎效应及其抗炎机制,以地塞米松作为阳性对照,建立脂多糖(LPS)诱导小鼠巨噬细胞RAW264.7炎症模型,检测炎症因子的释放及相关蛋白和mRNA的表达,以期提高对连翘脂素抗炎作用的全面认识并为连翘脂素临床开发提供有力的科学依据。实验采用Griess法检测细胞上清液中NO含量,ELISA法检测TNF-α和IL-6的含量,Westernblot法检测iNOS、COX-2蛋白的表达,RT-qPCR法检测iNOS、COX-2mRNA的表达。与LPS组比较,连翘脂素组和地塞米松组可以明显降低LPS诱导的RAW264.7细胞释放NO、TNF-α和IL-6的量,并呈现浓度依赖关系。Westrenblot和RT-qPCR结果显示连翘脂素能抑制LPS诱导的iNOS、COX-2的蛋白表达以及mRNA的表达,并呈浓度依赖关系。实验研究表明连翘脂素能够明显抑制LPS诱导的RAW264.7细胞炎症因子的释放,iNOS、COX-2蛋白及mRNA的表达从而抑制炎症反应。     

小檗碱通过抑制经典的NLRP3炎症小体活化通路来下调LPS诱导的HUVEC炎症反应*

目的:探讨小檗碱(Berberine, Ber)对脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharide, LPS)诱导的人脐静脉血管内皮细胞(Human Umbilical VeinEndothelial Cells, HUVEC)炎症反应的抑制作用及相关机制。方法:MTT法检测不同浓度的Ber对HUVEC存活率的影响。以0.05μg/mL LPS刺激HUVEC建立炎症反应模型,并分别给予1.25、2.5、5μM Ber干预,Elisa检测Ber对炎症因子TNF-α、IL-1β分泌的影响,免疫印迹法检测Ber对NLRP3炎症小体信号通路中NLRP3、My D88、IL-1β、TLR4、ASC和Caspase-1蛋白表达的影响。结果:不同浓度的Ber对HUVEC增殖均具有抑制作用,且基本呈现浓度梯度,IC50值接近5μM;与LPS组相比,不同浓度Ber(1.25、2.5、5μM)均可以显著下调HUVEC中TNF-α、IL-1β炎症因子的分泌(P0.005及P0.01),并可以显著抑制细胞中NLRP3、My D88、IL-1β、TLR4、ASC和Caspase-1蛋白的表达(P0.05),其抑制作用基本呈剂量关系,以5μM Ber的抑制效果最佳。结论:Ber可以通过抑制经典的NLRP3炎症小体活化通路来下调LPS诱导的HUVEC炎症反应。     

丙戊酸钠对LPS诱导的急性呼吸窘迫综合征小鼠的治疗作用

为了探讨丙戊酸钠(valproic acid,VPA)对急性呼吸窘迫综合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS)小鼠治疗作用及分子机制,本研究将30只雌性C57BL/6小鼠分为空白组、LPS组、LPS+VPA组,LPS+VPA组小鼠造模前腹腔预注射VPA,以LPS气管内注射诱导ARDS小鼠模型,6 h后检测各组小鼠肺水肿(湿重/干重),检测各组小鼠血液SOD和MDA水平;通过ELISA检测各组小鼠肺泡灌洗液中TNFα和IL-1β水平,Western blotting检测各组小鼠NF-κB p65和p-H2A.X蛋白表达水平。研究结果表明:与空白组相比,LPS组小鼠肺水肿显著升高,与LPS组比较,LPS+VPA组和阳性组小鼠肺水肿显著降低,差异具有统计学意义(p<0.01)。ELISA结果显示,与空白组比较,LPS组小鼠肺组织TNFα和IL-1β含量显著升高,与LPS组比较,LPS+VPA组小鼠肺组织TNFα和IL-1β含量显著降低,差异具有统计学意义(p<0.01)。与空白组比较,LPS组小鼠血液SOD活性显著降低,MDA含量显著升高,与LPS组比较,LPS+VPA组和阳性组小鼠血液SOD活性显著升高,MDA含量显著降低。Western blotting结果显示,与空白组比较,LPS组小鼠肺NF-κB p65和p-H2A.X蛋白表达显著升高,与LPS组比较,LPS+VPA组和阳性组小鼠肺NF-κB p65和p-H2A.X蛋白表达显著降低,差异具有统计学意义(p<0.01)。本研究初步表明:VPA能够抑制NF-κB通路,抑制小鼠氧化应激和炎症反应,保护ARDS小鼠肺组织。     

人IL-37b转基因对小鼠哮喘模型作用的研究

目的通过研究人抑制性细胞因子白细胞介素37b(interleukin 37b, IL-37b)转基因(transgenic, TG)小鼠(Il37b TG)对卵清蛋白(ovalbumin, OVA)诱导的哮喘气道高反应性、气道炎症和气道重塑等指标的变化,以及IL-37b在体外对小鼠和人肺结构细胞的作用,评估IL-37b在治疗哮喘方面的潜在意义。方法采用野生型和Il37b TG的雌性C57BL/6小鼠,建立周期为24 d的OVA诱导的哮喘小鼠模型,检测其肺力学参数、炎性细胞分类和Th2细胞因子表达以及肺组织病理学改变。体外采用原核细胞表达系统,获得大量纯化的重组人IL-37b。继而分别预处理小鼠肺成纤维细胞系(MLg)和人肺泡上皮细胞系(A549细胞),随后加以脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)刺激,收集培养上清,采用双抗体夹心ELISA检测炎性细胞因子IL-6含量。结果与野生型OVA模型组相比,Il37b TG OVA组的气道高反应性降低,差异有统计学意义(P=0.000 1,P0.05);支气管肺泡灌洗液和肺组织中嗜酸性粒细胞数量降低,差异有统计学意义(分别为P=0.000 1和P0.000 1,P0.05);肺组织炎症细胞浸润明显减少,气道炎症、杯状细胞增生和黏液分泌均明显减轻,苏木精-伊红染色和过碘酸-希夫染色评分也有所降低,差异有统计学意义(分别为P=0.000 1和P=0.000 2,P0.05),马松染色显示急性期胶原沉积的改变不明显;肺组织匀浆中Th2型细胞因子IL-5和IL-13的含量均有所降低。同时研究采用原核细胞表达系统得到的IL-37b预处理鼠肺成纤维细胞MLg和人肺上皮细胞A549,可以降低LPS所诱导IL-6的产生。结论 IL-37b可能通过对相关靶细胞的负向调控进而发挥对哮喘气道的高反应性及气道炎症的抑制作用,为IL-37b作为一种新的治疗方法在临床治疗哮喘的潜在应用提供了一定的实验依据。     

白介素17对脂多糖诱导人支气管上皮细胞炎症损伤的影响

目的:探讨白介素17A(interleukin-17A, IL-17A)对脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)诱导的人支气管上皮细胞(16-HBE)炎症损伤的影响及其可能机制。方法:体外培养16-HBE细胞系,予LPS、IL-17A进行干预,分为空白对照组、LPS组、IL-17A组、IL-17A+LPS组。采用酶联免疫吸附法(Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, Elisa)测定细胞培养液上清中IL-4、IFN-γ、IL-6、IL-8等炎症因子的水平,蛋白印迹法(Western Blot, WB)检测细胞中丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPKs)信号通路相关蛋白:细胞外调节蛋白激酶(ERK)、P38蛋白激酶(P38)、c-Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)的表达及其相应磷酸化蛋白(P-ERK、P-P38、P-JNK)的表达。体外培养16-HBE细胞系,予LPS、IL-17A以及ERK1/2抑制剂(U0126)、p38抑制剂(SB203580)和JNK抑制剂(SP600125),分为空白对照组、LPS+IL-17A组、IL-17A+LPS+UO126组、IL-17A+LPS+SB203580组、IL-17A+LPS+SP600125组。采用酶联免疫吸附法测定细胞培养液上清中IFN-γ、IL-4、IL-6、IL-8等炎症因子水平。结果:与空白对照组比较,LPS、IL-17A组,细胞上清中IL-6、IL-8的表达明显升高(P0.01),IL-4的表达降低(空白组vs LPS组P0.01,空白组vs IL-17A组P0.05),细胞内磷酸化ERK、P38、JNK蛋白的表达明显增加(空白组vs LPS组P0.05,空白组vs IL-17A组P0.01)。IL-17A+LPS组细胞上清中IL-6、IL-8、IL-4水平及细胞内P-ERK、P-P38、P-JNK的表达较LPS、IL-17A组更高(P0.05)。添加ERK、P38和JNK抑制剂后,与LPS+IL-17A组对比,IL-17A+LPS+U0126组、IL-17A+LPS+SB203580组和IL-17A+LPS+SP600125组细胞上清中IL-6、IL-8、IL-4水平下降(P0.05)。结论:IL-17A可能通过上调IL-6、IL-8的表达加重LPS诱导的16-HBE细胞炎症损伤,MAPKs可能是这一过程中的重要信号转导通路。     

EGCG对LPS刺激人肺腺癌A549细胞凋亡及CUGBP1蛋白表达的影响

目的：研究表没食子儿茶素-3-没食子酸酯（epigallocatechin-3-gallate,EGCG）对炎性刺激的人肺腺癌A549细胞增殖和凋亡的影响及与CUGBP1表达的关系。方法：MTT法检测EGCG和LPS刺激A549细胞增殖活性的影响;流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡;免疫细胞化学检测EGCG对LPS刺激人肺腺癌A549细胞内CUGBP1蛋白的表达。结果：与对照组相比,LPS体外显著促进A549细胞增殖,其胞核胞质内CUGBP1表达明显增强（P〈0.01）。加入EGCG可拮抗LPS促A549细胞增殖的作用,促进其凋亡,明显抑制LPS刺激的A549细胞内CUGBP1的表达（P〈0.01）。CUGBP1蛋白定量分析可知EGCG和LPS共同孵育A549细胞4h、24h时,细胞中的CUGBP1蛋白表达量较单纯LPS作用时降低。但EGCG和LPS共同孵育A549细胞24h,A549细胞中胞核CUGBP1蛋白表达量（1210.565±3.46）较4h时胞核CUGBP1蛋白表达量（67.344±3.68）高,差异有统计学意义（t=927.164,P〈0.001）。结论：EGCG可能通过干扰CUGBP1基因的表达抑制炎症刺激人肺腺癌细胞A549的增殖,促进其凋亡。     

A cyclophilin functions in pre-mRNA splicing

We report that the cyclophilin USA-CyP is part of distinct complexes with two spliceosomal proteins and is involved in both steps of pre-mRNA splicing. The splicing factors hPrp18 and hPrp4 have a short region of homology that defines a high affinity binding site for USA-CyP in each protein. USA-CyP forms separate, stable complexes with hPrp18 and hPrp4 in which the active site of the cyclophilin is exposed. The cyclophilin inhibitor cyclosporin A slows pre-mRNA splicing in vitro, and we show that its inhibition of the second step of splicing is caused by blocking the action of USA-CyP within its complex with hPrp18. Cyclosporin A also slows splicing in vivo, and we show that this slowing results specifically from inhibition of USA-CyP. Our results lead to a model in which USA-CyP is carried into the spliceosome in complexes with hPrp4 and hPrp18, and USA-CyP acts during splicing within these complexes. These results provide an example of the function of a cyclophilin in a complex process and provide insight into the mechanisms of action of cyclophilins.     

Redox regulation of cyclophilin A by glutathionylation

Using redox proteomics techniques to characterize the thiol status of proteins in human T lymphocytes, we identified cyclophilin A (CypA) as a specifically oxidized protein early after mitogen activation. CypA is an abundantly expressed cytosolic protein, target of the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporin A (CsA), for which a variety of functions has been described. In this study, we could identify CypA as a protein undergoing glutathionylation in vivo. Using MALDI-MS we identified Cys52 and Cys62 as targets of glutathionylation in T lymphocytes, and, using bioinformatic tools, we defined the reasons for the susceptibility of these residues to the modification. In addition, we found by circular dichroism spectroscopy that glutathionylation has an important impact on the secondary structure of CypA. Finally, we suggest that glutathionylation of CypA may have biological implications and that CypA may play a key role in redox regulation of immunity.     

Identification of simian cyclophilin A as a calreticulin-binding protein in yeast two-hybrid screen and demonstration of cyclophilin A interaction with calreticulin

Cyclophilin A (CyPA) was identified as one of the calreticulin (CR)-binding proteins in a yeast two-hybrid screen utilizing simian cDNA expression-library. The simian CyPA protein had 96% identity with that of human, differing only at eight amino acid residues. We further established CyPA–CR interaction by incubation of glutathione transferase-fused CyPA (GST-CyPA) and CR proteins with CV-1 cyto-lysates, followed by CR and CyPA-specific immuno-blot analysis. The immunosuppressive drug cyclosporin A, a CyPA ligand, did not inhibit CyPA–CR interaction. Our results established a new property of CyPA binding activity to CR. Since CR is a Ca²⁺-binding protein, CR–CyPA interactions may be important in signaling pathways for induction of Ca²⁺-dependent cellular processes.     

Structural insights into the catalytic mechanism of cyclophilin A

Cyclophilins constitute a ubiquitous protein family whose functions include protein folding, transport and signaling. They possess both sequence-specific binding and proline cis-trans isomerase activities, as exemplified by the interaction between cyclophilin A (CypA) and the HIV-1 CA protein. Here, we report crystal structures of CypA in complex with HIV-1 CA protein variants that bind preferentially with the substrate proline residue in either the cis or the trans conformation. Cis- and trans-Pro substrates are accommodated within the enzyme active site by rearrangement of their N-terminal residues and with minimal distortions in the path of the main chain. CypA Arg55 guanidinium group probably facilitates catalysis by anchoring the substrate proline oxygen and stabilizing sp3 hybridization of the proline nitrogen in the transition state.     

ADP-ribosylation of cyclophilin A by Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoenzyme S

The virulence of the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa) is in part mediated by the type III secretion (TTS) of bacterial proteins into eukaryotic hosts. Exoenzyme S (ExoS) is a bifunctional Pa TTS effector protein, with GTPase-activating (GAP) and ADP-ribosyltransferase (ADPRT) activities. Known cellular substrates of TTS-translocated ExoS (TTS-ExoS) ADPRT activity include proteins in the Ras superfamily and ERM family proteins. This study describes the ADP-ribosylation of a non-G-protein substrate of TTS-ExoS, cyclophilin A (CpA), a peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PPIase). Four novel 17 kDa proteins (pI 6.5-6.8) were recognized in a proteomic screen of lysates of human epithelial cells that had been exposed to ExoS-producing Pa, but not an isogenic non-ExoS producing strain. The proteins were identified as isoforms of CpA using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and confirmed by Western blotting. Mutagenesis analysis identified arginine 55 and 69 of CpA as sites of ExoS ADP-ribosylation. Examination of the effect of ExoS ADP-ribosylation on CpA function found a moderate (19%) decrease in prolyl isomerization of a Xaa-Pro containing peptides. In comparison, GST-CpA co-immunoprecipitation studies found ExoS ADP-ribosylation of CpA to efficiently inhibit CpA binding to calcineurin/PP2B phosphatase. Our results support that ExoS ADP-ribosylates and affects the function of the cytosolic protein, CpA, with the predominant functional effect relating to interference of CpA-cellular protein interactions.     

Nucleocapsid protein of SARS coronavirus tightly binds to human cyclophilin A

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is responsible for SARS infection. Nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SARS-CoV (SARS_NP) functions in enveloping the entire genomic RNA and interacts with viron structural proteins, thus playing important roles in the process of virus particle assembly and release. Protein-protein interaction analysis using bioinformatics tools indicated that SARS_NP may bind to human cyclophilin A (hCypA), and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology revealed this binding with the equilibrium dissociation constant ranging from 6 to 160nM. The probable binding sites of these two proteins were detected by modeling the three-dimensional structure of the SARS_NP-hCypA complex, from which the important interaction residue pairs between the proteins were deduced. Mutagenesis experiments were carried out for validating the binding model, whose correctness was assessed by the observed effects on the binding affinities between the proteins. The reliability of the binding sites derived by the molecular modeling was confirmed by the fact that the computationally predicted values of the relative free energies of the binding for SARS_NP (or hCypA) mutants to the wild-type hCypA (or SARS_NP) are in good agreement with the data determined by SPR. Such presently observed SARS_NP-hCypA interaction model might provide a new hint for facilitating the understanding of another possible SARS-CoV infection pathway against human cell.     

Evolution of cyclophilin A and TRIMCyp retrotransposition in New World primates

Host cell factors modulate retroviral infections. Among those, cyclophilin A (CypA) promotes virus infectivity by facilitating virus uncoating or capsid unfolding or by preventing retroviral capsid interaction with cellular restriction factors. In Aotus species, a retrotransposed copy of CypA inserted into the tripartite motif 5 (TRIM5) gene encodes a fusion protein which may block human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by targeting the incoming virus to ubiquitin-ligated degradation or by interfering with normal uncoating of the incoming particle, rendering those monkeys resistant to infection. In this study, we have extensively analyzed representative specimens from all New World primate genera and shown that the retrotransposed CypA copy is only present in Aotus. We have shown that this inserted copy diverged from its original counterpart and that this occurred prior to Aotus radiation, although no positive selection was observed. Finally, our data underscores the need for a precise taxonomic identification of primate species used as models for retroviral infections and novel antiviral approaches.