林木蒸腾作用测定和估算方法

蒸散是陆地生态系统降水量输入后生态系统水分消耗和大气之间水分交换重要的生态过程,包括土壤蒸发过程和植物蒸腾作用,对于区域水分平衡和全球水分循环有着重要的意义.其中,林木蒸腾作用是森林生态系统水分平衡的重要部分,受到冠层结构及其发展变化、土壤特性和自然环境因子等多种因素的影响.针对不同的植被覆盖类型,国内外许多研究通过各种手段和方法,如快速称量(RM)、稳态气孔计(SSP)、光合作用测定(PS)、整树容器(WP)、风调室(VC)、盆栽称量(WPP)、液流测定法(SPM)、蒸渗仪(L)、水量平衡(WB)、能量平衡(EB)、波文比(BR)、涡动相关(EC)、彭曼联合法(PMM)和遥感(RS)等来估算林木蒸腾作用.本文介绍了林木蒸腾研究中主要测定手段和方法的基本原理、具体技术、适用范围及优缺点,为森林生态系统林木蒸腾作用研究中可靠的手段和合适的方法选择提供依据.     

涡动相关法与波文比-能量平衡法测算森林蒸散的比较研究--以长白山阔叶红松林为例

分别采用涡动相关法与波文比-能量平衡法(BREB法)测算了长白山阔叶红松林2002年9、10月的森林蒸散量.结果表明,9月,涡动相关法与BREB法测算的森林蒸散量分别为83.1和87.9 mm,后者相对于前者的误差不到6%,且两者日蒸散量有较好的相关性(0.78),表明涡动相关法与BREB法在森林蒸散研究中有很好的一致性.10月,随着秋季落叶,林内水汽压梯度减小.涡动相关法测算的森林蒸散量为42.5 mm,BREB法测算的结果为49.1 mm,后者相对于前者的误差达到了16%,两者日蒸散量相关系数为0.53.在水汽压梯度较小时,BREB法会产生较大误差.9月中上旬,森林主要热量消耗是用于蒸散,约占辐射平衡量的71%;落叶后,森林主要热量消耗变为森林-大气间的感热交换,蒸散耗热只占辐射平衡量的40%.     

长白山阔叶红松林冬季雪面蒸发特征

利用2002-2005年冬季积雪期涡度相关水汽通量和微气象观测资料,对长白山阔叶红松林雪面蒸发动态及其与气象因子的关系进行分析.结果表明： 该涡度相关观测系统积雪期能量平衡闭合度为79.9%,潜热通量占净辐射的21.4%.研究期间,该区蒸发日变化呈单峰曲线形式,蒸发速率在融雪期大于稳定积雪期.30 min平均蒸发速率与净辐射呈线性关系,与气温呈二次曲线关系;蒸发日总量与净辐射呈二次曲线关系,与气温呈指数关系.积雪期蒸发日总量呈下降-稳定-上升的动态变化趋势,且上升期>下降期>稳定期,蒸发日总量最大值为0.73 mm·d^-1,最小值为0.004 mm·d^-1.2002-2003、2003-2004和2004-2005年积雪期蒸发总量分别为27.6、25.5和22.9 mm,占同期降水量的37.9%、19.5%和30.0%,平均蒸发日总量分别为0.17、0.19和0.17 mm·d^-1.     

森林蒸散测算方法研究进展与展望

对目前国内外森林蒸散研究中的主要理论和方法(蒸渗仪法、风调室法、涡动相关法、水量平衡法、能量平衡法、波文比法、彭曼联合法、SPAC法、经验公式法和应用遥感数据的方法)进行了总结,探讨了其实际应用中所存在的问题简单介绍了应用闪烁计数器直接观测显热通量以及应用双频微波辐射计探测大气水汽、云中液态水含量的技术.提出通过对大气水汽平衡的研究来推求蒸散量的设想,预测了森林蒸散研究的发展趋势.     

基于涡度相关法和树干液流法评价杨树人工林 生态系统蒸发散及其环境响应

 运用涡度相关(Eddy covariance)开路系统、树干液流(Sap flow)、土壤水分以及微气象观测系统, 于2006年生长季(5~10月)对北京大兴区永定河沿河沙地杨树(Populus euramericana)人工林生态系统的水量和能量平衡进行了连续测定; 分析了该系统能量平衡闭合水平及其组分分配特征, 不同水分条件下蒸发散及其各组分变化过程和分配特征, 以及影响蒸发散的主要环境因子; 并对组分求和法、土壤水分平衡法与涡度相关法测得该生态系统生长季蒸发散总量的结果进行了对比。结果表明: 生长季内该生态系统的能量闭合水平较高, 能量平衡各组分在不同土壤水分环境条件下所占比例变化较大; 在水分充足的条件下, 潜热通量在可利用能量分配过程中占优势, 显热通量在水分胁迫条件下占可提供能量的比例比潜热通量大。雨季到来之前, 土壤蒸发与植被蒸腾强度相差较小; 进入雨季后, 土壤深层水分得到补偿, 植被蒸腾显著增强而土壤蒸发强度减弱。涡度相关法所得的总蒸发散量与基于树干液流法等组分求和法得到的蒸发散结果较接近, 分别为513和492 mm。土壤水分平衡法的观测结果略高于前二者的观测结果, 雨季研究界面以下的土体也有水分交换是该方法高估蒸发散的主要原因。与环境因子的响应关系表明, 蒸发散以及蒸腾的变化过程对净辐射的响应程度比对饱和水汽压差高; 水分条件较好情况下, 蒸发散以及蒸腾的变化过程与水汽压差关系不明显, 说明水分充足时, 水汽压差不是蒸散强弱的限制因子。     

三种方法测定高寒草甸生态系统蒸散比较

利用涡度相关技术(Eddy covariance technique)、小型蒸渗仪(Mini-lysimeter)和波文比-能量平衡法(BREB)对2005年和2006年夏季(7～8月份)青藏高原海北高寒草甸生态系统的昼间蒸散(E)变化进行了对比观测研究.在观测期间,存在能量不闭合现象,涡度相关系统测定的湍流通量相当于有效能量的73%.3种不同方法测定的蒸散量之间具有较好的相关性,涡度相关系统与小型蒸渗仪测定的蒸散量相关系数达0.96,与波文比法的结果相关系数为0.95.然而,波文比法计算的蒸散量最大,比涡度相关系统的观测值高43%;小型蒸渗仪法的测定值次之,比涡度相关法的观测值高19%;涡度相关法测算的蒸散值最小.研究结果表明,利用涡度相关技术测定该高寒草甸生态系统的潜热通量,可能会过小评价该生态系统的蒸散量.     

古尔班通古特沙漠南缘融雪水土壤入渗量

融雪水土壤入渗量是干旱区沙漠重要的水平衡收入项.2012-2013、2013-2014年两个冬季对古尔班通古特沙漠南缘沙丘西坡、东坡和丘间地降雪前和融雪后的土壤含水率进行监测,根据水量平衡原理计算了沙丘西坡、东坡、丘间地和景观尺度上的融雪水土壤入渗量,并与采用筒测法的实测结果进行比较.结果表明： 降雪前土壤含水率较低,未冻层非饱和土壤水对地表冻结层土壤水分的补给可忽略不计;融雪入渗水是表层土壤获得补给的主要水源;冻结期潜水既没有蒸发,积雪融化后潜水也没有获得补给;研究区西坡、东坡、丘间地和景观尺度上的融雪水土壤入渗量分别为20～43、27～43、32～45和26～45 mm.
     

荒漠植物种子萌发对积雪覆盖变化的响应

以古尔班通古特沙漠10种不同生活型植物种子为对象,研究3种不同积雪覆盖变化(自然降雪、加倍降雪和去除降雪)对荒漠植物种子萌发的影响。根据种子室内萌发结果,将种子可分为高萌速萌、高萌缓萌、低萌速萌和低萌缓型4种萌发类型。总体而言,加雪处理对荒漠植物的种子萌发率具有正效应或无效应,而去雪处理则具有负效应或者无效应。将野外不萌发的种子于室内重新培养,结果显示,积雪变化对总萌发率(野外萌发+室内萌发)具正、负或无3种效应。研究表明,在荒漠生态系统中,植物种子在萌发类型上具有多样性,这种多样性与植物的生存环境密切相关。积雪覆盖可以通过影响植物种子野外萌发率或总萌发率来影响植物生存。不同植物种子萌发对积雪覆盖变化的响应策略大都与生活型无关。这种多样化的种子萌发响应模式,有利于荒漠植物群落在环境剧烈变化中保持结构和功能的稳定,是对环境长期适应的结果。     

锡林浩特草原小叶锦鸡儿灌丛的阻雪能力及其对积雪形态的影响

通过对典型草原区小叶锦鸡儿灌丛积雪体的调查,研究了灌丛特征(灌丛高度、灌丛迎风侧宽度、灌丛顺风侧长度)对积雪形态(积雪高度、积雪宽度、雪辫长度)的影响.结果表明:小叶锦鸡儿灌丛高度与积雪形态参数呈显著二次多项式函数关系,灌丛迎风侧宽度、灌丛顺风侧长度与积雪形态参数呈显著幂函数关系(指数<1).灌丛积雪形态和发育特征是灌丛特征参数共同影响和作用的结果,其中,灌丛高度对积雪高度影响最大,灌丛迎风侧宽度对积雪宽度和雪辫长度影响最大.灌丛较小时积雪形态发育较快,随后逐渐趋于稳定.灌丛二维滞雪范围模型直接反映灌丛对风力的干扰范围和积雪的潜在范围,间接反映灌丛的滞雪能力;灌丛三维阻雪体积模型直接反映一定雪源、风况条件下灌丛的阻雪能力.本文建立的灌丛滞雪范围和灌丛阻雪体积模型可为典型草原风吹雪区积雪资源估算和雪害防治提供理论依据.     

生态系统通量研究进展

开展生态系统通量的长期定位观测研究具有重要的意义,本文在总结生态系统通量概念与内涵的基础上,概要介绍了全球通量网、区域通量网(美洲网、欧洲网、亚洲网)和中国陆地生态系统通量观测研究网络的建设与发展历程,以及生态系统通量的主要研究方法,包括微气象学方法(涡度相关法、质量平衡法、能量平衡法和空气动力学法)和箱式法(静态箱法和动态箱法)及其基本工作原理;系统地对不同生态系统类型,包括森林生态系统、农田生态系统、草原生态系统和水体生态系统的CO₂通量、N₂O通量、CH₄通量、热通量等研究成果、方法及进展进行了评述;最后,结合我国不同生态系统类型通量研究的现实与需要,从生态系统通量研究的策略、水平、方法以及资金的投入、数据的管理与使用等方面提出了一些合理化建议与展望.     

Energy and Mass Exchange Over Incomplete Vegetation Cover

Competition for fresh water between agriculture and domestic and industrial uses is increasing worldwide. This is forcing subsistence and commercial agriculture to produce more with less water. Consequently, it is crucial to properly and efficiently manage water resources. This requires accurate determination of crop water loss into the atmosphere, which is greatly influenced by the exchange of energy and mass between the surface and the atmosphere. Measurement of these exchange processes can best be accomplished by micrometeorological methods. However, most micrometeorological methods are very expensive, difficult to set up, require extensive post-data collection corrections and/or involve a high degree of empiricism. This review discusses estimation of evapotranspiration using relatively inexpensive micrometeorological methods in temperature-variance (TV), surface renewal (SR) and mathematical models. The TV and SR methods use high frequency air temperature measurements above a surface to estimate sensible heat flux (H). The latent heat flux (λE), and hence evapotranspiration, is calculated as a residual of the shortened surface energy balance using measured or estimated net radiation and soil heat flux, assuming surface energy balance closure is met. For crops with incomplete cover, the disadvantage of these methods is that they do not allow separation of evapotranspiration into soil evaporation and plant transpiration. The mathematical models (single- and dual-source) involve a combination of radiation and resistance equations to determine evapotranspiration from inputs of automatic weather station observations. Single-source models (Penman-Monteith type equations) are used to determine evapotranspiration over homogeneous surfaces. The dual-source models, basically an extension of single-source models, determine soil evaporation and plant transpiration separately over heterogeneous or sparse vegetation. These mathematical models have also been modified to accommodate inputs of remotely-sensed radiometric surface temperatures that enable estimation of evapotranspiration on a regional and global scale.     

黑河上游排露沟流域不同时期草地蒸散发的日变化

蒸散发是水循环的重要组成部分,但高海拔山区的观测难度导致对于该区实际蒸散发时空变化规律的认识相对缺乏.本文利用称重式蒸渗仪对黑河上游山区排露沟流域的草地蒸散发进行实地观测,研究了不同生长阶段草地蒸散发的日变化规律.结果表明:冻结期蒸发过程为冰雪升华,有着与其他3个时期大为不同的蒸发日变化规律,表现为冰雪升华量在无太阳辐射的时段几乎无变化,在一天中总辐射最大和相对湿度最低的时段,冰雪升华量有所增加.生长前期是一年中的冰雪消融期,以融雪蒸发和土壤蒸发为主.生长期是蒸散发最旺盛的时期,受连续降雨事件的影响,极端大值和极端小值出现于同一时刻.生长后期以土壤蒸发为主,不同于生长前期和生长期蒸散发的日变化呈单峰型,生长后期蒸发的日变化有3个波峰.     

林木蒸腾耗水量测算方法的比较与应用

本文简述了林木蒸腾耗水的概念、研究价值和研究进展,从实测法和估测法的角度,综述了林木蒸腾耗水量的主要测算方法,对比了各方法的优缺点、适用性、局限性、应用现状以及适用尺度。本研究认为: 实测法可应用于多种空间尺度耗水量的测定,估测法常应用于大空间尺度蒸散量的测算。实测法是估测法的基础,因此应对实测法的测定结果进行合理的质量控制与评价,为校正估测法的估算结果提供数据基础。不管是同一大空间尺度还是不同空间尺度,实测法和估测法的结合能够提高蒸散量测算结果的准确性。提升复杂下垫面和恶劣气候环境下大空间尺度林木蒸散量的测算精度将成为未来的研究热点与难点。随着科学技术的不断进步,现有的测定装置和测算方法将被改进,精确测定林木蒸腾耗水量的新方法也将随之诞生。     

热消散液流测定系统研究竹子蒸腾的问题和解决思路

旺盛的蒸腾是竹子迅速生长的重要代谢保障,对林区生态系统水循环和水量平衡发挥关键作用,如何准确估测竹林的蒸腾耗水是迫切需要解决的方法难题。目前研究树木水分生理和森林水文广泛采用的热消散液流测定方法(TDP)却少有在竹林中应用,而仅有的几项研究报道由于缺乏严谨的实验验证,结果误差较大而缺少说服力。作者认为,竹壁结构异质性和竹竿中央空腔造成热量的不均匀分布是基于热通量交换的液流测定系统测量竹子蒸腾不准确的主要原因,提出以自行设计的注水变压液流特性测定法和传统的整树容器称重法,验证热消散液流测定系统估测竹子水分利用的适用性。本文还结合竹子的种群结构和无次生生长的特点,提出竹株借助相互连接的地下茎进行水分再分配,异株补偿水力限制,蒸腾主要受年龄而不是竹形大小影响的观点,建议通过分析竹子蒸腾的年龄效应,研究不同种植密度竹林水分利用的变化规律,为竹林生产和集水区水源管理提供有效的林型设计和措施。     

Influence of tree transpiration on mass water balance of mixed mountain forests of the West Carpathians

Brief information about water balance of the Carpathian temperate forest ecosystem are presented in the paper. Experimental research was done in a mature mixed fir-spruce-beech stand in the research plot “Pol’ana-Hukavský grúň” (850 m a.s.l.) in the south-eastern part of Pol’ana Mts. in the Biosphere Reserve UNESCO in Central Slovakia. Individual parameters of water budget have been continuously monitored. The water consumption of the model beech trees, as well as approximate model beech stand transpiration was estimated on the basis of sap flow measurements and up-scaling through dendrometrical approach. Sap flow of model beech trees was estimated by direct, non-destructive and continuous measurements by tree-trunk heat balance method with internal heating and sensing of temperature. These values were compared with potential evapotranspiration according to Türc. Precipitation parameters (rain and snow precipitation, through-fall precipitation, stem-flow, fog/snow precipitation and infiltration) have been measured simultaneously. Results of mass water balance and the portion of the tree transpiration within the individual water flows are presented. Evapotranspiration of beech-fir forest ecosystem in the middle mountain region (850 m a.s.l.) includes: transpiration (35% of precipitation total), interception (21%), evaporation (8%). There are differences between tree species in mass of transpirated water. Transpiration of spruce and fir reaches two-thirds of beech transpiration. Fog precipitation contribution to the water balance of beech-fir stand is 5%. Concurrently fog precipitation lowers the interception losses of vertical precipitation.     

A multi-lake study of seasonal variation in lake surface evaporation using MODIS satellite-derived surface temperature

Knowledge of the evaporative loss from lakes and reservoirs is critical to water resources managers as well as to the overall understanding of the water balance in a given basin, geographical region, or continent. Existing methods for ascertaining evaporation from lakes and reservoirs include point measurements, water balance and mass transfer calculations, and proxy measurements using a pan. Point measurements using the eddy flux covariance method can be accurate, but are resource intensive and unsuited for determining spatial variation over a lake, or for obtaining measurements over many lakes. Mass balance methods cannot provide spatial variability and their accuracy depends on other portions of the water balance that can be challenging to obtain, such as leakage. Similarly, relatively recently deployed scintillation methods provide only an average for a strip across a lake and are also resource intensive and not suited for multi-lake studies. Evaporation pan measurements can also be used, though their accuracy is poor. Herein, we use a combination of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite measurements of water surface temperature, measurements of wind speed, air temperature, and relative humidity from local NWS stations, and a mass transfer method, to demonstrate multi-lake evaporation measurements. Specifically, the seasonal variation in evaporation is obtained for the five major lakes in the Savannah River Basin (in South Carolina, USA): Lakes Jocassee, Keowee, Hartwell, Russell, and Thurmond. Since this approach requires only an existing satellite resource with global coverage and existing NWS stations, this method can potentially be ported to any lake where there is a nearby meteorology station. Hence, this method could be used by both water resource managers and limnologists alike. The possibility is discussed of extending this approach beyond a single basin to encompass an entire geographical region or continent.     

Climate and vegetation controls on boreal zone energy exchange

The boreal forest, one of the world's larger biomes, is distinct from other biomes because it experiences a short growing season and extremely cold winter temperatures. Despite its size and impact on the earth's climate system, measurements of mass and energy exchange have been rare until the past five years. This paper overviews results of recent and comprehensive field studies conducted in Canada, Siberia and Scandinavia on energy exchanges between boreal forests and the atmosphere. How the boreal biosphere and atmosphere interact to affect the interception of solar energy and how solar energy is used to evaporate water and heat the air and soil is examined in detail. Specifically, we analyse the magnitudes, temporal and spatial patterns and controls of solar energy, moisture and sensible heat fluxes across the land–atmosphere interface. We interpret and synthesize field data with the aid of a soil–vegetation–atmosphere transfer model, which considers the coupling of the energy and carbon fluxes and nutrient status. Low precipitation and low temperatures limit growth of many boreal forests. These factors restrict photosynthetic capacity and lower root hydraulic conductivity and stomatal conductance of the inhabitant forests. In such circumstances, these factors interact to form a canopy that has a low leaf area index and exerts a significant resistance to evaporation. Conifer forests, growing on upland soils, for example, evaporate at rates between 25 and 75% of equilibrium evaporation and lose less than 2.5 mm day^?1 of water. The open nature of many boreal conifer forest stands causes a disproportionate amount of energy exchange to occur at the soil surface. The climatic and physiological factors that yield relatively low rates of evaporation over conifer stands also cause high rates of sensible heat exchange and the diurnal development of deep planetary boundary layers. In contrast, evaporation from broad‐leaved aspen stands and fen/wetlands approach equilibrium evaporation rates and lose up to 6 mm day^?1.     

Study on Water Balance and Evapotranspiration of Artificial Vegetation in Shapotou Area,Tenger Desert

Precipitation, the only water resource available for plants, is the main limited factor to plant growth in Shapotou area. After the vegetation protective system is built, the proportion between various components of water balance changes and exerts a great influence on growth and succession of artificial vegetation. By calculation on the basis of water balance using weighing electronic lysimeters, the results showed that the average precipitation (186.6 mm) met the need of plant growth in the earlier stage of sand control. The evapotranspiration of desert plants, of which the density is 75 in 100 m2 area of the ground, was much more than the annual' average precipitation. The ratio of evapotranspiration of Artemisia ordosica Kraschen. and Caragana korshinskii Kom. to precipitation was 136.6% and 131.1 % respectively. The ratio of soil evaporation in the water equilibrium rose as the precipitation decreased in the range of 100 ～ 200 mm. However when precipitation was around 100 mm, which was the lowest limit of precipitation available for artificial vegetation, water was almost solely dependant on the soil ineffective evaporation. The effects of precipitation distribution in time and space and formation of biocrust on the soil surface on water balance and water use in artificial vegetation were highly appraised.     

森林生态系统CO2通量的研究方法及研究进展

介绍了测量森林生态系统CO2通量的微气象法和箱式法。其中,微气象学方法着重介绍了涡旋相关法和驰豫涡旋积累法的基本原理及数据分析过程中应注意的问题。并简要介绍了能量平衡法和空气动力学法。箱式法主要介绍了其测定基本原理和数据的模型化处理及应注意的问题。同时,对近年来欧洲和美洲在森林生态系统CO2通量研究中所取得的进展进行了概述。