乳杆菌肽聚糖对β-乳球蛋白致敏小鼠脾细胞Th1/Th2及Treg/Th17失衡的体外影响

【目的】观察嗜酸乳杆菌完整肽聚糖(Whole peptidoglycan,WPG)对致敏脾淋巴细胞Th1/Th2及Treg/Th17平衡的体外调节作用。【方法】通过腹腔注射β-乳球蛋白(β-Lg)建立BALB/c小鼠牛乳过敏模型。造模成功后,分离致敏小鼠的脾淋巴细胞并分别与不同剂量的WPG共同孵育,酶联免疫法检测细胞上清液中抗体(总IgE和特异性IgE),Th1/Th2及Treg/Th17相关细胞因子(IFN-γ,IL-4,TGF-β,IL-17)水平,流式细胞术检测脾淋巴细胞中CD3+、CD4+和CD8+的百分含量,荧光定量PCR法检测过敏小鼠脾细胞中Th1/Th2及Treg/Th17相关转录因子T-bet、GATA-3、Foxp3和RORγt mRNA的表达量。【结果】WPG体外刺激致敏脾细胞后可显著抑制IgE的产生,上调CD3+、CD4+细胞数及CD4+/CD8+比值,下调Th2型因子(IL-4,GATA-3mRNA)和Th17型因子(IL-17,RORγt mRNA)的表达,且与过敏组相比,中、高剂量WPG的作用效果显著(P0.05);另外,WPG体外作用还上调了Th1型因子(IFN-γ,T-bet mRNA)及Treg型因子(TGF-β,Foxp3 mRNA)的表达,且具有剂量依赖性。【结论】嗜酸乳杆菌WPG体外刺激可有效纠正致敏脾淋巴细胞的Th1/Th2及Treg/Th17失衡。     

应用体内外实验筛选可降低牛乳β-乳球蛋白过敏的乳杆菌

【目的】通过体内外实验评估5种乳杆菌缓解牛乳β-乳球蛋白(BLG)过敏的作用,为今后筛选具有抗过敏活性的乳杆菌提供参考。【方法】首先体外分析5种活的/热致死的乳杆菌促进小鼠原代淋巴细胞分泌细胞因子(CK)IFN-γ和IL-4的水平,随后应用小鼠BLG过敏模型评估这5种乳杆菌抑制过敏的能力。将实验动物随机分为空白组、BLG致敏组和5种活的/热致死乳杆菌组。采用ELISA法检测各组小鼠淋巴细胞分泌Thl/Th2型CK的水平,并测定小鼠血清中总IgE和BLG特异性IgE的含量。【结果】在体外可促进淋巴细胞分泌IFN-γ、抑制IL-4,使其IFN-γ/IL-4比值(代表Thl/Th2细胞平衡)显著高于正常对照组(P<0.05)的乳杆菌,在体内实验中也能有效提高致敏小鼠淋巴细胞的IFN-γ/IL-4分泌率,并显著降低致敏小鼠血清中总IgE和BLG特异性IgE的水平(P<0.05)。相反,在体外的IFN-γ/IL-4比值较低的乳杆菌,不能缓解特异性IgE抗体介导的食物过敏反应。【结论】基于乳杆菌体外刺激小鼠原代淋巴细胞分泌Th1/Th2型CK的结果,可以预测菌株在体内具有可通过纠正Th2占优势的Th1/Th2细胞失衡,下调抗体分泌量,缓解小鼠BLG过敏症状的能力。     

乳杆菌对牛乳β-乳球蛋白致敏小鼠淋巴细胞分泌Th1/Th2型细胞因子和抗体的体外影响

为了分析乳杆菌对致敏小鼠脾淋巴细胞分泌Th1/Th2细胞因子及抗体的体外影响,用牛乳β-乳球蛋白腹腔注射BALB/c小鼠建立过敏症模型,造模成功后,分离致敏小鼠的脾淋巴细胞并与4种活/死乳杆菌(107 CFU/mL)体外共同孵育,ELISA法检测细胞上清液中细胞因子(IL-12、IFN-γ和IL-4)和抗体(总IgE、β-Lg特异性IgE和总IgG)含量。4种活/死乳杆菌均可体外调节致敏小鼠脾淋巴细胞分泌细胞因子和抗体的水平,特别是热致死的发酵乳杆菌和嗜酸乳杆菌可提高淋巴细胞IL-12和IFN-γ的分泌,抑制IL-4的分泌,使其IFN-γ/IL-4比值(代表Th1/Th2细胞平衡)高于活菌,与空白对照组比较差异显著(P<0.05)。同时,这两株热致死菌还可显著下调细胞上清液中总IgE、特异性IgE和总IgG抗体的浓度(P<0.05)。试验结果表明乳杆菌可提高牛乳β-乳球蛋白致敏小鼠脾淋巴细胞的IFN-γ/IL-4比值,进而纠正Th2占优势的Th1/Th2失衡,下调抗体分泌量,且具有菌株特异性。     

双歧杆菌对中国对虾原肌球蛋白致敏小鼠的免疫调控作用

【目的】比较研究婴儿双歧杆菌(Bifidobacterium infantis 13.085)对中国对虾原肌球蛋白致敏BALB/c小鼠预防与治疗过敏反应的差异,探究其对致敏小鼠Treg/Th17细胞平衡及相关细胞因子的影响。【方法】采用硫酸铵盐析及等电点沉淀法纯化中国对虾原肌球蛋白(TM),将中国对虾TM和弗氏佐剂混合液腹腔注射诱发BALB/c小鼠致敏,建立动物过敏模型。将实验小鼠随机分为正常对照组、治疗对照组、双歧杆菌治疗组、预防对照组和双歧杆菌预防组。观察分析小鼠过敏症状(腹泻、肺组织HE染色比较、称重法测定小鼠体重和脾脏脏器系数变化),采用ELISA测定小鼠血清中特异性IgE、IgG2a和组胺的含量,采用流式细胞术测定脾脏T淋巴细胞亚群(Treg、Th17)数量,采用荧光定量PCR测定脾脏中Treg型和Th17型细胞因子和转录因子的表达量。【结果】纯化得到中国对虾原肌球蛋白纯度为84.93%,得率为60.88%。体内试验表明,双歧杆菌治疗组和预防组相比于对照组,腹泻和过敏症状均有明显的缓解;不同时期的双歧杆菌干预均对过敏小鼠肺组织症状有明显的改善作用,且可降低过敏小鼠的脾脏脏器系数。第56天实验周期结束后发现,相比预防对照组和治疗对照组,双歧杆菌预防组和治疗组小鼠血清中特异性IgE和组胺含量显著降低(P0.05),脾脏Treg/Th17比值显著升高(P0.05),Th17型细胞因子IL-17A mRNA表达水平显著降低(P0.01);双歧杆菌治疗组相对于治疗对照组,Treg型细胞因子CD25mRNA表达水平显著升高(P0.01)。此外,双歧杆菌治疗组血清特异性IgE及IL-17A mRNA转录水平显著低于双歧杆菌预防组(P0.05),而Treg/Th17比值及CD25 mRNA转录水平显著高于预防组(P0.05)。【结论】双歧杆菌13.085能有效缓解小鼠过敏症状,且治疗免疫调控效果优于预防效果,其作用可能通过平衡Treg/Th17细胞亚群数量,促进Treg型细胞因子表达而抑制Th17型细胞因子分泌,从而阻断炎性抗体及组胺释放。     

类风湿关节炎大鼠血清Th1/Th2水平及意义

目的:初步探讨类风湿关节炎大鼠免疫功能紊乱的机制。方法:采用酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)检测类风湿关节炎大鼠血清中Th1细胞分泌的细胞因子IFN-γ和Th2细胞分泌的细胞因子IL-4的水平。结果:类风湿关节炎大鼠血清中IFN-γ的水平与正常组相比明显升高(p<0.01),IL-4的水平明显降低(p<0.01)。结论:在类风湿关节炎大鼠血清中Th1/Th2细胞分泌的细胞因子水平存在着明显失衡,两者以Th1细胞分泌细胞因子占优势,这可能与其发病机制密切相关。     

Th17分化调节机制及其在器官移植中的研究进展

Th17细胞是新近发现的第三类CD4+ T辅助细胞亚群,其所分泌的IL-17、IL-22等细胞因子在中性粒细胞趋化、组织重塑与修复及介导抗体蛋白的产生等具有重要作用.但Th17分化调节受外界环境影响较大,如转录因子、细胞因子、Th1、Th2和调节T细胞(Tregs)等,这些均具有决定初始CD4+ T细胞向Th17细胞的分化方向和免疫反应方向的调控作用.目前Th17在器官移植物免疫耐受中的作用越来越受到重视,明确Th17分化调节的各种影响因素,将为器官移植免疫耐受研究提供新思路.     

一株猪肠道Lactobacillus animalis LGM对结肠炎小鼠Th细胞分化转录因子基因表达的影响

【目的】从体外和体内研究Lactobacillus animalis LGM对Th细胞分化转录因子T-bet、GATA-3、ROR-γt和Foxp3的调节作用,以及探究L. animalis LGM对小鼠结肠炎的影响。【方法】本试验采用改良型的Hungate滚管技术从猪结肠内容物中分离一株L. animalis LGM,根据其16S rRNA序列进行鉴定。收集L. animalis LGM培养液上清,与细菌脂多糖(LPS,2μg/mL)同时孵育Caco-2细胞24 h,体外研究L. animalis LGM对Caco-2细胞内Th细胞分化转录因子(T-bet,GATA3,ROR-γt和Foxp3) mRNA表达的影响;配制L. animalis LGM细菌悬液,研究L. animalis LGM灌胃对DSS诱导结肠炎小鼠症状及结肠Th细胞分化转录因子和细胞因子(IFN-γ,IL-4,IL-17和IL-10) mRNA表达的影响,表达结果采用荧光定量PCR法检测。【结果】与对照组相比,L.animalisLGM培养液上清显著上调Caco-2细胞内ROR-γt与Foxp3 mRNA表达(P0.05),显著下调GATA3、IL-4、IL-17和TGF-βmRNA表达(P0.05)。L. animalis LGM灌胃显著上调小鼠结肠内ROR-γt和Foxp3的表达(P0.05),显著降低了促炎因子IL-4和IL-17的表达(P0.05),阻止了小鼠结肠长度缩短(P0.05)。【结论】猪肠道分离L. animalis LGM表现出对Th细胞分化转录因子的选择性调节,显著上调Caco-2细胞及结肠炎小鼠ROR-γt与Foxp3mRNA表达。降低DSS诱导结肠炎小鼠炎症水平,对DSS诱导结肠炎起保护作用,有助于维护肠道环境稳态。     

新型冠状病毒Omicron BA.4/5变异株RBD-Fc蛋白的表达及其免疫效果的评价

本研究针对新冠病毒Omicron BA.4/5的受体结合域（Receptor binding domain, RBD）构建一个连接Fc受体的二聚体蛋白BA.4/5-RBD-Fc(BRF)并评价其免疫原性。结果显示，两种佐剂组小鼠的二免后血清均可产生高滴度的IgG抗体且显著高于一免后血清（P<0.0001）,BRF+AlOH/CpG组小鼠血清产生较为平衡的IgG1和IgG2a抗体应答，而BRF+BFA03组小鼠血清能产生更多的偏向Th2应答的IgG1抗体，且IgG1/IgG2a比值显著高于BRF+AlOH/CpG组（P<0.0001）。BRF+AlOH/CpG组产生的Th1应答的细胞因子干扰素γ(Interferon-γ,IFN-γ)高于BRF+BFA03组（P<0.01），而产生的Th2应答细胞因子白介素4(Interleukin-4,IL-4)IL-4显著低于BRF+BFA03组（P<0.01）。BRF蛋白结合不同佐剂两次免疫小鼠后的血清均可以有效中和目前Omicron主要的流行亚型BA.2与BA.4活病毒，产生高达19 334 598和17 224 096的...     

分泌性中耳炎患者外周血Th1Th2细胞及T淋巴细胞亚群水平的表达及临床意义

目的:探讨分泌性中耳炎(SOM)患者外周血T辅助细胞1(Th1)、T辅助细胞2(Th2)细胞因子及T淋巴细胞亚群水平的表达及其临床意义。方法:选取我院于2015年1月至2018年1月期间收治的SOM患者135例记为SOM组,根据病程将患者分为急性组(病程14d,49例)、亚急性组(病程14-30d,53例)、慢性组(病程30d,33例)。另外选择同期于我院进行体检的100例健康者为对照组。分别对比SOM组和对照组受试者、不同病程SOM患者外周血Th1细胞因子[干扰素(INF-γ)、白细胞介素-2(IL-2)]、Th2细胞因子[白细胞介素-4(IL-4)、白细胞介素-10(IL-10)]以及T淋巴细胞亚群[CD3~+、CD4~+、CD8~+、CD4~+/CD8~+]水平。采用Pearson相关性分析INF-γ、IL-2、IL-4、IL-10与CD3~+、CD4~+、CD8~+、CD4~+/CD8~+的相关性。结果:SOM组患者外周血INF-γ、IL-2、IL-4、IL-10水平高于对照组(P0.05);急性组患者外周血INF-γ、IL-2、IL-4、IL-10水平低于亚急性组、慢性组,亚急性组患者外周血INF-γ、IL-2、IL-4、IL-10水平低于慢性组(P0.05)。SOM组患者外周血CD3~+、CD4~+、CD4~+/CD8~+水平低于对照组,CD8~+水平高于对照组(P0.05);急性组患者外周血CD3~+、CD4~+、CD4~+/CD8~+水平高于亚急性组、慢性组,CD8~+水平低于亚急性组、慢性组,亚急性组患者外周血CD3~+、CD4~+、CD4~+/CD8~+水平高于慢性组,CD8~+水平低于慢性组(P0.05)。Pearson相关性分析结果显示,SOM患者外周血INF-γ、IL-4与CD8~+呈正相关(P0.05),IL-4与CD3~+、CD4~+呈负相关(P0.05)。结论:SOM患者外周血Th1Th2细胞因子、T淋巴细胞亚群水平均表现异常,且其水平与疾病发生和发展存在一定联系,通过监测Th1Th2细胞因子、T淋巴细胞亚群有助于评估SOM患者病情。     

三氧化二砷对MRL/Ipr狼疮鼠IFN-γ、IL-4表达和Th1/Th2平衡的影响

探讨三氧化二砷(ATO)对MRL/Ipr狼疮鼠IFN-γ、IL-4表达和Th1/Th2平衡的影响.将发病早期和晚期的MRL/Ipr狼疮鼠分别接受ATO、环磷酰胺(CTX)和生理盐水(NS)治疗2个月,然后用ELISA法测血清中IFN-γ、IL-4的浓度和抗ds-DNA抗体水平及四色流式细胞术测脾脏CD3 (T)细胞、CD3 CD4 (Th)细胞、CD3 CD4 IFN-γ IL-4-(Th1)细胞和CD3 CD4 IL-4 IFN-γ(Th2)细胞的百分率,从而研究ATO对MRL/lpr狼疮鼠IFN-γ、IL-4表达和Th1/Th2平衡的影响.发现给药后,3、5月龄ATO组MRL/lpr狼疮鼠血清抗ds-DNA抗体水平明显下降(P<0.05),其血清IFN-γ和IL-4浓度、Th1、Th2和CD3 细胞百分率均低于相应月龄的NS组(P<0.05),且NS组中5月龄组Th1/Th2值较3月龄组显著升高(P=0.003),而在ATO组中差异无统计学意义(P=0.187).因此,研究显示ATO能显著降低发病早期和发病晚期的MRL/lpr狼疮鼠血清抗ds-DNA抗体的水平,可抑制T细胞和Th细胞增生和活化功能,降低IFN-γ和IL-4的血清水平和细胞诱生水平,并在一定程度上逆转发病晚期的MRL/lpr狼疮鼠的Th1偏移.     

Molecular verification and characterization of BYDV-resistant germ plasms derived from hybrids of wheat with Thinopyrum ponticum and Th. intermedium

Twenty-five partial amphiploids (2n=8x=56), which were derived from hybrids of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with either Thinopyrum ponticum (Podpera) Liu & Wang, Th. intermedium (Host) Barkworth & D. Dewey, or Th. junceum (L.) A. Löve, were assayed for resistance to BYDV serotype PAV by slot-blot hybridization with viral cDNA of a partial coat protein gene. Three immune lines were found among seven partial amphiploids involving Th. ponticum. Seven highly resistant lines were found in ten partial amphiploids involving Th. intermedium. None of eight partial amphiploids or 13 addition lines of Chinese Spring — Th. junceum were resistant to BYDV. Genomic in situ hybridization demonstrated that all of the resistant partial amphiploids, except TAF46, carried an alien genome most closely related to St, whether it was derived from Th. ponticum or Th. intermedium. The two partial amphiploids carrying an intact E genome of Th. ponticum are very susceptible to BYDV-PAV. In TAF46, which contains three pairs of St- and four pairs of E-genome chromo somes, the gene for BYDV resistance has been located to a modified 7 St chromosome in the addition line L1. This indicates that BYDV resistance in perennial polyploid parents, i.e., Th. ponticum and Th. intermedium, of these partial amphiploids is probably controlled by a gene(s) located on the St-genome chromosome(s).     

Interleukin-18 enhances a Th2 biased response and susceptibility to Leishmania mexicana in BALB/c mice

Interleukin-18 deficient mice on a BALB/c background display increased resistance to cutaneous infection with Leishmania mexicana, with reduced lesion progression and reduced parasite burdens compared with wild-type mice. Infected IL-18-/- mice had lower antigen specific IgG1 levels and total IgE levels and conversely higher antigen specific IgG2a levels than similarly infected wild-type mice. Splenocytes isolated from infected IL-18-/- mice produced significantly lower levels of antigen induced IL-4 and higher levels of IFN-gamma than wild-type animals. Consequently IL-18 during L. mexicana infection of BALB/c mice promotes a Th2 biased response and thereby has a disease exacerbating role.     

A taxonomical revision ofThymus sect.Teucrioides (Lamiaceae)

TheThymus teucrioides Boiss. & Spruner aggregate is revised and the following new taxa, all from the alpine zone in the Greek mountains, are described:Th. leucospermus Hartvig from the calcareous mountains of Pindhos and Mt Parnassos in Sterea Ellas,Th. rechingeri Hartvig with the subsp.macrocalyx Hartvig from calcareous mountains in Sterea Ellas and N Peloponnissos, andTh. teucrioides subsp.alpinus Hartvig from the serpentine areas of N Pindhos. In the variableTh. teucrioides s. str. many characters have turned out to be markedly geographically correlated and many local populations can be distinguished by a particular combination of characters.Dedicated to Prof.K. H. Rechinger on the occasion of his 80th birthday.     

隐球菌性脑膜炎患者外周血中Th9和Th17细胞水平变化及意义

目的：比较初发隐球菌性脑膜炎患者治疗前后与健康对照人群外周血 CD4＋ T 细胞中 Th9和 Th17细胞的比值,探讨 Th9和 Th17细胞在隐球菌性脑膜炎发病机制中的作用。方法选取初发未经治疗隐球菌性脑膜炎患者及健康对照各12例,抽取隐球菌性脑膜炎患者治疗前和治疗后3周及健康对照的外周血,分离外周血单核细胞,应用流式细胞仪检测技术对3组病例外周血 CD4＋ T 细胞中 Th9和 Th17的比值进行比较。结果与健康对照相比,隐球菌性脑膜炎患者治疗前Th17表达下调,差异有统计学意义;在治疗好转患者中,治疗后 Th17表达显著上调,与治疗前及健康对照相比差异均有统计学意义。Th9在治疗前与健康对照相比无差异,在治疗后隐球菌性脑膜炎患者中表达上调。结论 Th17免疫途径是隐球菌性脑膜炎患者抵御隐球菌感染的重要免疫机制,隐球菌性脑膜炎发病及治疗拮抗可能与 Th17缺乏有关。     

The distinct effects of a butanol fraction of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bidens pilosa</Emphasis> plant extract on the development of Th1-mediated diabetes and Th2-mediated airway inflammation in mice

Bidens pilosa is claimed to be useful for immune or anti-inflammatory disorders; however, little scientific evidence has been published concerning its function. In this paper, immune disease mouse models were used to study the function of a butanol fraction of B.pilosa. We demonstrated treatment with the butanol fraction of B.pilosa ameliorated Th1 cell-mediated autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice but caused deterioration of Th2 cell-mediated airway inflammation induced by ovalbumin (OVA) in BALB/c mice. We next showed that Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and/or IL-5) increased but Th1 cytokine (IFN-) decreased following injections with the butanol fraction of B.pilosa in both mouse strains. Accordingly, Th2 cytokine-regulated IgE production in mouse serum increased following treatment with this fraction. Finally, we found that the butanol fraction of B.pilosa inhibited Th1 cell differentiation but promoted Th2 cell differentiation. Taken together, the butanol fraction of B.pilosa has a dichotomous effect on helper T cell-mediated immune disorders, plausibly via modulation of T cell differentiation.     

A gradient of glucocorticoid sensitivity among helper T cell cytokines

Helper T (Th) cells secret specific cytokines that promote immune responses whereas glucocorticoids limit the extent of immune responses by inhibiting cytokine secretion and other functions of Th cells. However, glucocorticoid resistance develops in subgroups of patients with Th cell-driven diseases such as asthma and Crohn’s disease. Recent evidence supports that Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells have distinct glucocorticoid sensitivity. Th1 cells are sensitive to glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis and cytokine suppression while Th2 cells are sensitive to the latter but not the former and Th17 cells are resistant to both. This gradient of glucocorticoid sensitivity of Th cells corresponds to the glucocorticoid sensitivity of the diseases they underlie. We identify the mechanisms contributing to distinct glucocorticoid sensitivity of Th cells and their cytokines in the literature, as this information is useful to improve treatment strategies for glucocorticoid resistant immunological disorders.     

Current Research on the Immune Response to Experimental Sporotrichosis

Sporotrichosis is often manifested as a chronic granulomatous infection and the monocytes/macrophages play a central role in the host defense system. Surface components of Sporothrix schenckii have been characterized and suggestions have been made as to their possible role in pathogenicity. Ergosterol peroxide, cell-wall compounds (alkali-insoluble fraction-F1 and lipid extract-LEY), and exoantigen from the yeast form of the fungus have been characterized as virulence factors, activating both innate, by cytotoxins linked to the activation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (H₂O₂ and NO), and adaptive immune response to produce cytokines Th1 and Th2 profile. In this study, preliminary results have demonstrated that, in systemic sporotrichosis, TLR-4 triggers the innate immune response, activating an oxidative burst. These data represent the first report of the participation of TLR-4 in murine sporotrichosis, in the presence of lipids from the cell wall of S. schenckii. These results taken together may open new perspectives of study leading to an antifungal agent that could be used to benefit the entire population.     

骨化三醇对自身免疫性甲状腺炎大鼠T淋巴细胞亚群的影响

目的:研究骨化三醇对自身免疫性甲状腺炎模型大鼠甲状腺功能、甲状腺过氧化物酶抗体(TPOAb)、甲状腺球蛋白抗体(TGAb)及脾脏T淋巴细胞亚群的影响。方法:20只Lewis大鼠采用高碘饮水联合猪甲状腺球蛋白皮下注射的方法建立自身免疫性甲状腺炎动物模型。造模成功后大鼠随机分为模型组和骨化三醇组。经10周灌胃后,检测各组大鼠甲状腺功能三项、甲状腺抗体,流式细胞技术检测大鼠脾脏T淋巴细胞亚群的比例。结果:(1)与正常组相比,模型组及骨化三醇组大鼠促甲状腺激素(TSH)明显降低,血清游离甲状腺素(FT4)及TPOAb、TGAb明显升高,差异均具有统计学意义(P0.01);与模型组大鼠相比,骨化三醇组大鼠TPOAb、TGAb明显降低(P0.01);(2)与正常组相比,模型组大鼠表现为Th1、Th17细胞比例升高(P0.05),Th1/Th2、Th17/Treg比例升高(P0.05),与模型组相比,骨化三醇组大鼠Th1、Th17细胞比例降低(P0.05),Th2、Treg比例升高(P0.05),Th1/Th2、Th17/Treg比例降低(P0.01)。结论:骨化三醇可通过抑制Th1、Th17免疫亢进,改善Th1/Th2、Th17/Treg失调,改善自身免疫性甲状腺炎免疫反应。     

Autophagy and cytokines

Autophagy is a highly conserved homoeostatic mechanism for the lysosomal degradation of cytosolic constituents, including long-lived macromolecules, organelles and intracellular pathogens. Autophagosomes are formed in response to a number of environmental stimuli, including amino acid deprivation, but also by both host- and pathogen-derived molecules, including toll-like receptor ligands and cytokines. In particular, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-2, IL-6 and TGF-β have been shown to induce autophagy, while IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 are inhibitory. Moreover, autophagy can itself regulate the production and secretion of cytokines, including IL-1, IL-18, TNF-α, and Type I IFN. This review discusses the potentially pivotal roles of autophagy in the regulation of inflammation and the coordination of innate and adaptive immune responses.