mazEF系统介导胁迫诱导细菌细胞程序性死亡

mazEF是细菌染色体上的“毒素?抗毒素系统”基因(Toxin-antitoxin system, TA系统), 可介导胁迫诱导细菌细胞程序性死亡。本文介绍了mazEF系统的遗传结构特征、生理生化功能、环境胁迫激活mazEF系统介导的细菌细胞程序性死亡的机制, 参与细胞死亡过程中的细胞信号和细胞因子的调控, 以及关于mazEF系统介导的细菌细胞程序性死亡理论的争论, 提出了进一步丰富和完善细菌细胞程序性死亡理论亟待解决的问题。     

鱼腥藻PCC7120染色体上的基因对asl3212/all3211构成mazEF家族的毒素-抗毒素系统

大肠杆菌染色体上毒素-抗毒素系统(TA,toxin-antitoxin system)mazEF介导多种胁迫诱导的细胞死亡或生长抑制。鱼腥藻PCC7120染色体上的基因对asl3212/all3211具有TA系统保守的遗传结构,其编码产物与大肠杆菌mazEF系统的毒素MazE和抗毒素MazE同源,可能构成mazEF家族的TA系统。利用构建的选择性表达系统分析asl3212和all3211表达产物对大肠杆菌细胞生长活性的影响,结果显示诱导all3211表达显著抑制细胞生长,同时诱导asl3212表达使all3211编码产物抑制的细胞恢复生长。提示all3211为毒素基因,asl3212为抗毒素基因,二者组成一个功能性的mazEF家族的TA系统。     

毒素蛋白基因mazF在基因修饰系统中的应用进展

毒素-抗毒素系统(Toxin-antitoxin system,TA系统)存在于大部分细菌中。mazEF是大肠杆菌中一种毒素-抗毒素系统。毒素基因mazF编码的MazF毒素蛋白可以特异性地剪切自由mRNA的ACA序列,从而抑制蛋白合成、引起细胞生长停滞;近些年,许多学者利用mazF基因作为反向筛选标记对不同种微生物建立了无标记或无痕的基因修饰系统,并实现了不同菌株的基因组修饰。主要综述了大肠杆菌mazF基因作为反向筛选基因的应用原理及其在不同种类微生物的基因修饰系统中的应用进展,然后对mazF基因及其他毒素基因在基因修饰系统中的应用进行了展望。     

细菌毒素-抗毒素系统的研究进展

毒素-抗毒素系统(toxin-antitoxin system,TA)由两个共表达的基因组成,其中一个基因编码不稳定的抗毒素蛋白(antitoxin),另一个基因编码稳定的毒素蛋白(toxin).毒素-抗毒素系统最早发现于一些低拷贝的质粒,用来维持低拷贝质粒在菌群中的稳定存在.随后的研究表明,毒素-抗毒素系统广泛存在于细菌,包括一些致病菌的染色体上.在营养缺乏等不良生长条件下,由于基因表达的抑制和蛋白酶的降解作用,不稳定的抗毒素蛋白减少,从而产生游离的毒素蛋白,导致细菌的生长抑制和死亡.毒素-抗毒素系统的生理功能目前还存在争议,有学者认为细茼染色体上的毒素-抗毒素系统可以在不良生长状况下介导细菌的死亡,即细茼程序性细胞死亡(baeterial programmedcell death).但也有证据显示,毒素-抗毒素系统的功能更偏向于应激状态下的生理调节方面,即只起应激状态下的抑菌作用而不是杀菌作用.对细菌生长调控中毒素-抗毒素系统的作用机理进行综述,并探讨毒素-抗毒素系统研究的理论和应用价值.     

结核分枝杆菌毒素-抗毒素系统 maz EF6缺失突变株的构建及其表型的初步探讨

为构建结核分枝杆菌毒素‐抗毒素系统 m azEF6缺失突变株,并对其表型进行初步探讨,首先用聚合酶链反应（PCR）分别从H37Rv标准株和PUC‐19K质粒扩增出 mazEF6基因的同源臂及卡那霉素抗性基因kan ;然后应用融合PCR技术将 mazEF6基因的同源臂与 kan基因进行杂交拼接,获得目的融合片段,将该融合片段克隆于pMD‐19T（simple）载体形成自杀质粒pMD‐19T‐ΔmazEF6‐kan ,并将自杀质粒转化至大肠埃希菌DH5α中;最后利用电穿孔技术将自杀质粒电转至H37Rv标准株中,在卡那霉素抗性改良罗氏培养基上筛选H37Rv ΔmazEF6缺失突变株单个菌落,提取阳性菌株全基因组DNA为模板,PCR扩增克隆片段并测序。将所获得的H37Rv ΔmazEF6缺失突变株进行遗传稳定性检测后,对其表型进行初步研究。结果显示,该缺失株在15代内未发生回复性突变;与野生株相比,缺失株生长速度缓慢且细菌形态短小。本研究证实,融合PCR技术便于快速获得结核分枝杆菌缺失突变株;结核分枝杆菌在缺失毒素‐抗毒素系统 m azEF6基因后生存能力下降,这为进一步研究毒素‐抗毒素系统的作用奠定了基础。     

Nat Microbiol:科学家开发出抵御细菌感染的新疗法

正在细菌中,毒素抗毒素系统包含着两个相互关联的基因,基因其位于相同的染色体上,其可以编码一种毒性蛋白和中和毒性的解毒蛋白;正常情况下,抗毒素蛋白会结合毒性蛋白并且抑制其发挥作用,但对环境压力产生反应时,抗毒素蛋白就会破碎,从而就使得细胞出现毒性作用。近日刊登于国际杂志Nature Microbiology上的一篇研究报告中,来自日内瓦大学的研究人员就对毒     

细菌中Ⅰ型毒素-抗毒素系统的研究进展

毒素-抗毒素系统是广泛存在于细菌和真菌细胞内的一对小型遗传控制元件,毒素基因编码稳定的蛋白质分子,抗毒素基因编码的则是稳定性较差的蛋白质或者是具有调控功能的RNA.人们对于毒素分子在细胞内的生物靶标、分子结构与功能、体内调节机制等进行了大量的研究,不仅揭示了毒素-抗毒素的生理功能,而且为多种生物技术中的应用提供了新的素材.目前发现共有5大类型的毒素-抗毒素系统,其中Ⅰ型毒素-抗毒素系统的抗毒素分子为调节型RNA,可以通过多种不同途径与毒素蛋白质的mRNAs结合从而中和毒素的细胞毒性.Ⅰ型毒素-抗毒素系统以其独特的调节性RNA的调控方式,成为目前毒素-抗毒素研究中的重要热点.本文将对目前Ⅰ型毒素-抗毒素系统的研究进展进行综述,并对其可能的应用前景进行展望.     

细菌毒素-抗毒素系统的功能

毒素-抗毒素(Toxin-Antitoxin,TA)系统广泛存在于原核生物和古细菌的染色体和质粒中。此系统由2个共表达的基因组成,分别编码稳定的毒素蛋白和易降解的抗毒素,毒素通常发挥毒性作用抑制细菌生长,而抗毒素则可中和毒性,二者相互作用对细菌生长状态起精密调节作用。根据TA的组成和抗毒素的性质,目前已经发现有6型TA,这些TA系统在细菌中发挥的作用一直是近年来学者们研究的热点,文中对细菌TA的功能研究进展进行了综述。     

原核生物Ⅶ型毒素-抗毒素系统研究进展北大核心

毒素-抗毒素(toxin-antitoxin,TA)系统是普遍存在于细菌、古细菌及原噬菌体中的遗传元件,通常由分别编码毒素和编码抗毒素的基因组成。毒素在细菌细胞中较为稳定,而抗毒素则容易被降解。大多数毒素为蛋白并具有酶的活性,通过影响蛋白质的翻译、DNA的复制等重要生命活动从而对细菌产生毒性,抑制细菌生长。抗毒素为蛋白质或非编码RNA,通过极其多样的方式,中和毒素的毒性。目前发现TA在调控质粒拷贝数、流产性感染、生物被膜的形成等过程中发挥着重要作用。随着研究的不断深入,新型TA不断被发现,极大地促进了我们对于TA的认识。目前TA已经扩展到I‒Ⅷ型,本文总结了近期发现的新型TA,并重点介绍了最新发现的Ⅶ型TA及其特殊的中和机制。由于TA与病原微生物的致病性密切相关,因此,深入研究这些TA可以为耐药微生物的治疗提供新的靶点。     

原核生物毒素-抗毒素系统的研究进展

毒素-抗毒素系统(toxin-antitoxin system,简称TA系统)广泛存在于原核生物(细菌和古菌)的基因组中，通常TA系统由毒素和抗毒素两部分组成，毒素发挥毒性抑制细菌生长，抗毒素可以解除抑制，它们通过体内的调控作用来对细菌或古菌的生长活动进行调节。研究发现，TA系统根据其性质及抗毒素中和毒素的方式不同可以分为8种类型Ⅰ～Ⅷ,不同类型的TA系统之间又存在着错综复杂的交互作用，而且此系统在细菌中发挥的作用也一直是近年来学者们研究的热点。现就TA系统的最新分类、TA系统的功能以及应用作一概述。     

The chromosomal mazEF locus of Streptococcus mutans encodes a functional type II toxin-antitoxin addiction system

Type II chromosomal toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules consist of a pair of genes that encode two components: a stable toxin and a labile antitoxin interfering with the lethal action of the toxin through protein complex formation. Bioinformatic analysis of Streptococcus mutans UA159 genome identified a pair of linked genes encoding a MazEF-like TA. Our results show that S. mutans mazEF genes form a bicistronic operon that is cotranscribed from a σ70-like promoter. Overproduction of S. mutans MazF toxin had a toxic effect on S. mutans which can be neutralized by coexpression of its cognate antitoxin, S. mutans MazE. Although mazF expression inhibited cell growth, no cell lysis of S. mutans cultures was observed under the conditions tested. The MazEF TA is also functional in E. coli, where S. mutans MazF did not kill the cells but rather caused reversible cell growth arrest. Recombinant S. mutans MazE and MazF proteins were purified and were shown to interact with each other in vivo, confirming the nature of this TA as a type II addiction system. Our data indicate that MazF is a toxic nuclease arresting cell growth through the mechanism of RNA cleavage and that MazE inhibits the RNase activity of MazF by forming a complex. Our results suggest that the MazEF TA module might represent a cell growth modulator facilitating the persistence of S. mutans under the harsh conditions of the oral cavity.     

A continuous fluorometric assay for the assessment of MazF ribonuclease activity

Plasmids maintain themselves in their bacterial host through several different mechanisms, one of which involves the synthesis of plasmid-encoded toxin and antitoxin proteins. When the plasmid is present, the antitoxin binds to and neutralizes the toxin. If a plasmid-free daughter cell arises, however, the labile antitoxin is degraded (and not replenished) and the toxin kills the cell from within. These toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems thereby function as postsegregational killing systems, and the disruption of the TA interaction represents an intriguing antibacterial strategy. It was recently discovered that the genes for one particular TA system, MazEF, are ubiquitous on plasmids isolated from clinical vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) strains. Thus, it appears that small molecule disruptors of the MazEF interaction have potential as antibacterial agents. The MazF toxin protein is known to be a ribonuclease. Unfortunately, traditional methods for the assessment of MazF activity rely on the use of radiolabeled substrates followed by analysis with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This article describes a simple and convenient continuous assay for the assessment of MazF activity. The assay uses an oligonucleotide with a fluorophore on the 5' end and a quencher on the 3' end, and processing of this substrate by MazF results in a large increase in the fluorescence signal. Through this assay, we have for the first time determined K(M) and V(max) values for this enzyme and have also found that MazF is not inhibited by standard ribonuclease inhibitors. This assay will be useful to those interested in the biochemistry of the MazF family of toxins and the disruption of MazE/MazF.     

Helicobacter macacae MazF interplays with Escherichia coli homologs and enhances antibiotic tolerance

Background

Toxin-antitoxin systems are highly variable, even among strains of the same bacterial species. The MazEF toxin-antitoxin system is found in many bacteria and plays important roles in various biological processes such as antibiotic tolerance and phage defense. However, no interplay of MazEF systems between different species was reported.

Materials and Methods

MazEF toxin-antitoxin system of Helicobacter macacae was examined in three Escherichia coli strains with and without endogenous MazEF knockout. In vivo toxicity, antibiotic tolerance, and live/dead staining followed by flowcytometry analysis were performed to evaluate the functionality and interplay of the toxin-antitoxin system between the two species.

Results

Controlled ectopic expression of MazF of H. macacae (MazFhm) in E. coli did not affect its growth. However, in endogenous MazEF knockout E. coli strains, MazFhm expression caused a sharp growth arrest. The toxicity of MazFhm could be neutralized by both the antitoxin of MazE homolog of H.macacae and the antitoxin of MazE of E. coli, indicating interplay of MazEF toxin-antitoxin systems between the two species. Induced expression of MazFhm enhanced tolerance to a lethal dose of levofloxacin, suggesting enhanced persister formation, which was further confirmed by live/dead cell staining.

Conclusions

The MazEF toxin-antitoxin system of H. macace enhances persister formation and thus antibiotic tolerance in E. coli. Our findings reveal an interplay between the MazEF systems of H. macacae and E. coli, emphasizing the need to consider this interaction while evaluating the toxicity and functionality of MazF homologs from different species in future studies.     

Toxin-Antitoxin Systems Are Important for Niche-Specific Colonization and Stress Resistance of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are prevalent in many bacterial genomes and have been implicated in biofilm and persister cell formation, but the contribution of individual chromosomally encoded TA systems during bacterial pathogenesis is not well understood. Of the known TA systems encoded by Escherichia coli, only a subset is associated with strains of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC). These pathogens colonize diverse niches and are a major cause of sepsis, meningitis, and urinary tract infections. Using a murine infection model, we show that two TA systems (YefM-YoeB and YbaJ-Hha) independently promote colonization of the bladder by the reference uropathogenic ExPEC isolate CFT073, while a third TA system comprised of the toxin PasT and the antitoxin PasI is critical to ExPEC survival within the kidneys. The PasTI TA system also enhances ExPEC persister cell formation in the presence of antibiotics and markedly increases pathogen resistance to nutrient limitation as well as oxidative and nitrosative stresses. On its own, low-level expression of PasT protects ExPEC from these stresses, whereas overexpression of PasT is toxic and causes bacterial stasis. PasT-induced stasis can be rescued by overexpression of PasI, indicating that PasTI is a bona fide TA system. By mutagenesis, we find that the stress resistance and toxic effects of PasT can be uncoupled and mapped to distinct domains. Toxicity was specifically linked to sequences within the N-terminus of PasT, a region that also promotes the development of persister cells. These results indicate discrete, multipurpose functions for a TA-associated toxin and demonstrate that individual TA systems can provide bacteria with pronounced fitness advantages dependent on toxin expression levels and the specific environmental niche occupied.     

In Silico Derived Peptides for Inhibiting the Toxin–Antitoxin Systems of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Basis for Developing Peptide-Based Therapeutics

Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a prerequisite for the bacterium to survive in extreme conditions. Antimicrobial peptides inhibiting the formation of these complexes provide a novel strategy for TB drug discovery process. Absence of TA genes in human, makes these systems as an attractive target for drug development. In this study using Peptiderive server, we have derived a number of potential inhibitory peptides for nine TA complexes—VapBC3, VapBC5, VapBC11, VapBC15, VapBC26, VapBC30, RelBE2, RelJK, MazEF4 of Mtb. We have studied about the common interacting toxin residues with the antitoxin and with the derived peptide. Further, using Cluspro server, we compared the binding efficacy of the in silico derived peptides with the published potential peptides for the toxins VapC26, VapC30 and MazF. Thus, these in silico derived peptides would serve as basis for developing peptide based therapeutics for TA complexes of Mtb.

     

Analysis of Non-Typeable Haemophilous influenzae VapC1 Mutations Reveals Structural Features Required for Toxicity and Flexibility in the Active Site

Bacteria have evolved mechanisms that allow them to survive in the face of a variety of stresses including nutrient deprivation, antibiotic challenge and engulfment by predator cells. A switch to dormancy represents one strategy that reduces energy utilization and can render cells resistant to compounds that kill growing bacteria. These persister cells pose a problem during treatment of infections with antibiotics, and dormancy mechanisms may contribute to latent infections. Many bacteria encode toxin-antitoxin (TA) gene pairs that play an important role in dormancy and the formation of persisters. VapBC gene pairs comprise the largest of the Type II TA systems in bacteria and they produce a VapC ribonuclease toxin whose activity is inhibited by the VapB antitoxin. Despite the importance of VapBC TA pairs in dormancy and persister formation, little information exists on the structural features of VapC proteins required for their toxic function in vivo. Studies reported here identified 17 single mutations that disrupt the function of VapC1 from non-typeable H. influenzae in vivo. 3-D modeling suggests that side chains affected by many of these mutations sit near the active site of the toxin protein. Phylogenetic comparisons and secondary mutagenesis indicate that VapC1 toxicity requires an alternative active site motif found in many proteobacteria. Expression of the antitoxin VapB1 counteracts the activity of VapC1 mutants partially defective for toxicity, indicating that the antitoxin binds these mutant proteins in vivo. These findings identify critical chemical features required for the biological function of VapC toxins and PIN-domain proteins.     

MazG -- a regulator of programmed cell death in Escherichia coli

We have previously reported that mazEF, the first regulatable chromosomal 'addiction module' located on the Escherichia coli chromosome, downstream from the relA gene, plays a crucial role in the programmed cell death in bacteria under stressful conditions. It consists of a pair of genes encoding a stable toxin, MazF, and MazE, a labile antitoxin interacting with MazF to form a complex. The cellular target of MazF toxin was recently described to be cellular mRNA, which is degraded by this toxin. On the same operon, downstream to the mazEF genes, we found another open reading frame, which was called mazG. Recently, it was shown that the MazG protein has a nucleotide pyrophosphohydrolase activity. Here we show that mazG is being transcribed in the same polycistronic mRNA with mazEF. We also show that the enzymatic activity of MazG is inhibited by MazEF proteins. When the complex MazEF was added, the enzymatic activity of MazG was about 70% inhibited. We demonstrate that the enzymatic activity of MazG in vivo causes depletion of guanosine 3',5'-bispyrophosphate (ppGpp), synthesized by RelA under amino acid starvation conditions. Based on our results, we propose a model in which this third gene, which is unique for chromosomal addiction systems, has a function of limiting the deleterious activity of MazF toxin. In addition, MazG solves a frequently encountered biological problem: how to avoid the persistence of a toxic product beyond the time when its toxicity is useful to the survival of the population.