三峡重庆库区不同鸟类群落的物种组成及多样性研究

1996～1997年,对三峡工程重庆库区的鸟类群落物种组成和种群数量进行了调查,共调查记录库区鸟类15目48科226种,数量18929只。用鸟类数量级划分、Sorensen相似性指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou指数分析库区各种生境鸟类群落物组成和物种多样性结果表明：1）库区天然林、人工林、灌草丛和水域生境中鸟类群落的组成与农田生境具有较高的相似性,尤以人工林和农田的相似性最高;2）库区人工林生境鸟类群落物种多样性最高;3）库区由于长期以来人类活动的影响,生境日趋单一,已逐渐形成一种以农田灌丛鸟类为主的鸟类生态系统。     

梵净山国家级自然保护区叶蝉群落结构特征

为了解梵净山国家级自然保护区内叶蝉群落结构组成及其变化特征,丰富保护区昆虫物种分布数据,对该保护区不同生境和不同垂直林带的叶蝉进行初步调查.运用统计分析、聚类分析、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Pieluo均匀性指数、Simpson优势度指数,研究了不同生境和林带中叶蝉类群的物种组成、相似性、多样性和均匀度.结果表明,随着植被组成变化和海拔升高,叶蝉类群在5种生境和4种林带间的分布存在较大差异,植被组成丰富和光照条件充足的环境中,叶蝉类群多样性增加,植被类型单一且密度大的环境下,叶蝉类群趋于减少.在不同生境中,类群属级阶元数量顺序为:灌丛(85属)＞林缘(61属)＞田地(49属)＞森林(44属)＞草坡(33属);在不同海拔林带中顺序为:亚高山灌丛草甸带(88属)＞常绿阔叶林带(68属)＞亚高山针阔混交林带(66属)＞常绿落叶阔叶混交林带(39属).自然环境的相似性是叶蝉群落相似性的基础,区间相似性越高,叶蝉群落越相似,不同生境和不同林带中自然环境存在的差异,导致了叶蝉类群相似性的不同.在不同生境下,灌丛和林缘的叶蝉类群组成相似性最高,生境之间关联性最强,而在不同林带下,常绿阔叶林带和亚高山灌丛草甸带相似性最高.随着生境条件和林带环境的不同,叶蝉类群的分布呈现一定的特征,类群均匀度指数和多样性指数呈正相关,优势度指数则相反.从田地到灌丛以及从常绿阔叶林带到亚高山灌丛草甸带,多样性指数逐渐增大,叶蝉类群组成在灌丛和亚高山灌丛草甸带最为丰富,各类群的数量也相对均匀,而田地和常绿阔叶林带的优势度指数最高,说明其群落内物种分布较不均匀,个体数虽最多,但优势类群突出,多样性指数相对较低.     

四川黑竹沟国家级自然保护区的鸟类多样性

鸟类多样性是区域生物多样性价值和保护管理成效评价的重要指标。2015—2019年利用样线法和样点法对四川黑竹沟国家级自然保护区的鸟类多样性进行调查,结合红外相机数据和文献资料,统计出保护区鸟类16目54科286种。其中,国家Ⅰ级重点保护野生鸟类3种、国家Ⅱ级重点保护野生鸟类21种。世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)濒危物种红色名录列为濒危的1种、易危3种、近危2种;划分的5类生境(常绿阔叶林、常绿落叶阔叶混交林、针阔混交林、亚高山针叶林和亚高山灌丛或草甸)中,鸟类多样性最高的是常绿阔叶林,其次是常绿落叶阔叶混交林,最低的是亚高山灌丛或草甸。群落组成相似性结果显示,针阔混交林与亚高山针叶林中的鸟类群落相似性最高;鸟类多样性的垂直分布格局呈中峰模式,峰值出现在海拔1 600～2 400 m。建议保护区加强对珍稀鸟类和迁徙鸟类的调查监测力度,增加对重点生境的巡护,加强在保护区周边乡镇的宣传力度,提高当地居民的生态保护意识。     

四川嘛咪泽自然保护区不同生境类型鸟类多样性调查

2006年4~5月采用样点法对四川嘛咪泽自然保护区的鸟类组成和种群数量进行了调查,共记录到鸟类7目23科105种,数量1948只,其中国家重点保护鸟类6种,我国特有鸟类7种。鸟类区系以东洋界成分为主。对不同生境鸟类多样性的分析结果表明:1)人工林和灌丛草地生境间的鸟类群落相似性指数最高,灌丛草地和原始林之间鸟类群落相似性最低;2)次生林鸟类多样性指数最高,灌丛草地最低;3)原始林内国家级保护鸟类最多,特有种仅次于次生林;4)林中鸟类垂直分布中间层密度最大。     

乌鲁木齐市不同生境繁殖期的鸟类群落多样性及功能集团分析

2016—2019年对乌鲁木齐市7种生境(高寒草甸、针叶林-灌丛、草原、农田、荒漠、湿地和城市公园)的繁殖期鸟类进行实地调查。共记录鸟类178种,隶属19目45科,其中雀形目Passeriformes最具代表性,共86种(占48.3%);居留型以夏候鸟和留鸟为主,共153种(占86.0%);分布型以古北型为主,共82种(占46.1%);珍稀濒危和重点保护物种共33种(占18.5%)。鸟类群落物种数及个体数最多的为湿地生境,荒漠、针叶林-灌丛生境次之,各生境物种数(H=30.628,P0.001)存在显著性差异。湿地生境鸟类的Shannon-Wiener多样性指数最高,高寒草甸生境的最低;草原生境的Pielou均匀度指数最高,高寒草甸生境的最低;高寒草甸生境的Simpson优势度指数最高,草原生境的最低;针叶林-灌丛生境的物种丰富度指数最高,荒漠生境的最低。草原与针叶林-灌丛生境之间的Sorensen相似性系数最高(0.59),高寒草甸与荒漠之间的最低(0)。湿地生境鸟类群落的捕食集团以食虫性为主,其他生境以杂食性为主。湿地生境中鸟类营地面巢的居多,高寒草甸生境中鸟类营洞巢的居多,其他生境中鸟类营编织巢的居多。上述结果表明,乌鲁木齐市周围的湿地生境应该得到优先保护。     

浙江省生态公益林植被恢复过程中物种组成及多样性的变化

在浙江省生态公益林区域的现状植被中分析了6种主要群落类型的物种组成和多样性的变化格局,包括演替系列中的2种灌丛、松优势林、2种混交林和常绿阔叶林。结果表明含松较多的灌丛和松优势林常分布在环境退化较严重(土层瘠薄)的生境中,其中灌木层主要由阳性的映山红、木、白栎等组成,常绿阔叶林优势种木荷、青冈、苦槠、甜槠等在其中偶见,因此推断其自然恢复为常绿林的速度慢;含常绿阔叶树较多的灌丛及含松较少的混交林分布在土层较厚处,木荷、青冈、苦槠、甜槠等的频度和重要值都较大,较容易自然恢复为常绿阔叶林。各种群落中物种多样性指数——Gleason、Shannon-Wiener、Simpson指数基本上以常绿阔叶林为最高,其次是含松较少的混交林,含松较多的灌丛和松优势林各种多样性指数最低。本研究显示我国中亚热带东部森林植被恢复途径有3条:(1)灌草丛→针叶林(松)→针(松)阔混交林→常绿阔叶林;(2)灌草丛→针(松)阔混交林→常绿阔叶林;(3)灌草丛→常绿阔叶林。这意味着本区域的常绿阔叶林恢复可以不必经历松林阶段,在生境条件较好的地方通过人工干预、补种常绿阔叶树可以加速常绿阔叶林恢复。     

深圳梧桐山风景区昆虫资源调查及群落结构分析

2012年7月-2013年7月,对深圳梧桐山风景区昆虫资源进行系统调查,并对其群落结构进行分析。期间共采集昆虫标本2934号,鉴定出166种,隶属17目98科。通过对不同生境昆虫物种丰富度和多样性指数统计分析得出,亚热带常绿阔叶林昆虫物种多样性指数最高,为3.29;南亚热带常绿灌丛昆虫多样性指数最低,为1.88。各种生境昆虫物种多样性指数从大到小排列为:亚热带常绿阔叶林南亚热带针阔叶混交林南亚热带人工常绿阔叶林南亚热带常绿灌丛。不同生境昆虫群落相似性系数在0.0889-0.2690之间,随着植被构成和环境小气候的差别越大相似性系数越小,说明梧桐山风景区各个生境之间昆虫群落具有一定的独立性。通过对不同垂直地带昆虫物种多样性指数统计分析得出,海拔介于300-600 m地带昆虫物种多样性指数最高,为3.30,海拔900 m以上地带昆虫多样性指数最低,为1.06。不同垂直地带昆虫多样性指数从大到小排列顺序为:海拔300-600 m海拔600-900 m海拔100-300 m海拔900 m以上。     

贵州省普定县不同植被演替阶段的物种组成与群落结构特征

通过对贵州省普定县喀斯特地区不同植被演替阶段群落的调查, 研究了植被演替过程中群落物种组成和群落结构的变化。结果表明, 该地区的植被主要处于5个演替阶段, 即次生乔木林、乔灌过渡林、藤刺灌丛、稀灌草丛以及火烧干扰后的蕨类植物群落。本次调查共记录到植物365种, 隶属89科218属。其中, 蕨类植物31种, 隶属14科23属; 种子植物334种, 隶属75科195属。物种分布较多的科主要有蔷薇科、菊科、禾本科、百合科、忍冬科、唇形科、莎草科、樟科、葡萄科和水龙骨科。随着正向演替的推进, 物种丰富度增加, 群落结构趋于复杂化。藤刺灌丛与乔灌过渡林群落层次不明显, 次生乔木林分层明显。从藤刺灌丛向次生乔木林演替的过程中, 小径级个体所占比例明显降低, 高于1.3 m植物的总密度、乔木密度和藤本密度都先升高后降低, 而灌木密度呈逐渐降低的趋势。对喀斯特地区植被的恢复提出了参考措施。     

都江堰地区小型哺乳动物群落与生境类型关系的初步研究

于2000年10月底至11月初,对都江堰地区中亚热带常绿阔叶林带不同生境类型中小型哺乳动物群落的多样性变化进行了初步研究。其捕获小型哺乳动物12种,其中啮齿目（Rodentia）鼠科（Muridae）10种,食虫目（Insce-tivora）JuQin科（Soricidae）2种,总捕获率为10.67%,在所调查的7个生境中,以干扰较轻的次生林中小型哺乳动物物种多样性指数（1.8438）和均匀度（0.9475）最高,灌丛、次生林1、原生林和弃耕地均有较高的多样性指数,农田受人类的干扰最严重,物种单一,优势度（0.5703）明显;柳杉林中的多样性指数（1.3380）和均匀度(0.8313）均较低。但原生林的物种多样性指数（1.4305）略低于次生林（1.8475和1.4610）,灌丛（1.6398）和弃耕地(1.6566）。根据不同生境内群落相似性指数进行系统聚类,7个生境在相似性指数0.0952处全部聚合在一起,灌丛、原生林和次生林中主要分布有森林型小型哺乳动物,聚为一类,为森林群落型;柳杉林和农田以大足鼠（Rattus nitidus）为优势种,聚为一类,为农田群落型;弃耕地一方面由于群落多样性指数较高（1.6566）,另一方面其农田型小型哺乳动物仍占较高比例（46.67%）,所以在聚类图中另成一类,为农林交错型。结果表明,人类活动过度干扰的生境（如农田、柳杉林）多样性指数最低,适度干扰的生境（如次生林、灌丛、弃耕地）多样性指数最高,干扰较少的生境（如原生林）多样性指数略低。     

四川栗子坪国家级自然保护区鸟类资源与多样性分析

通过野外调查并结合有关文献,四川栗子坪国家级自然保护区有鸟类15目53科260种,其中,留鸟169种(65.0%),夏候鸟57种(21.9%),冬候鸟18种(6.9%),旅鸟16种(6.2%);东洋界物种161种(61.9%),古北界物种70种(26.9%),广布种29种(11.2%)。保护区分布有IUCN红色名录鸟类6种,其中濒危(EN)1种,易危(VU)2种,近危(NT)3种;国家Ⅰ级重点保护野生鸟类4种,国家Ⅱ级重点保护野生鸟类20种;中国特有鸟类14种。分析表明,秋季优势物种4种,春季5种。秋季的鸟类多样性低于春季,但无论秋季还是春季,中低海拔阔叶林的鸟类多样性最高,针叶林和针阔混交林次之,河谷灌丛最低。秋季和春季鸟类群落相似性指数以及不同生境之间鸟类物种相似性指数皆低于0.50,说明时间和空间上群落组成差异较大。在保护区鸟类保护与管理中,建议注重维持多样的生境类型,同时应当重视保护中低海拔阔叶林。     

Breeding bird communities of second‐rotation plantations at different stages of the forest cycle

Capsule Early stages of the plantation forest cycle have distinct bird communities and bird density was significantly higher in the second rotation than in the first for a given age class.

Aims To characterize the bird communities in Irish second-rotation plantations and to compare them with those of first-rotation plantations.

Methods Point counts were used to survey 20 plantation forests in four age classes (Pre-thicket; Thicket; Mid‐rotation; and Mature) in the breeding season of 2007. distance software was used to generate bird densities. Ordination, indicator species analysis, and glm were used to analyse the bird communities.

Results Bird communities of Pre‐thicket and, to a lesser extent, Thicket age classes were distinct from those of more mature forests. Bird communities of Mid‐rotation and Mature age classes were indistinguishable from each other and were therefore combined into a single age class (Closed canopy). Pre‐thicket held significantly lower total bird density, but significantly higher migrant bird density, than this Closed canopy age class. Bird density was significantly higher in the second rotation in all age classes except for Pre‐thicket, but migrant density was significantly higher in Pre‐thicket in the second rotation. There was no difference in species richness between the first and second rotation.

Conclusions Differences between rotations are probably due to changes in vegetation structure, and the increase in second‐rotation forests in Ireland is likely to be a positive development for bird communities. Especially encouraging is the higher migrant bird density in second‐rotation Pre‐thicket, as some of these species are in decline throughout Europe. However, the largest differences in population density between rotations were exhibited by common species and such species will likely benefit most from future increases in the area of second‐rotation plantation forests.     

Birds,Cattle, and Bracken Ferns: Bird Community Responses to a Neotropical Landscape Shaped by Cattle Grazing Activities

Large areas of tropical moist forests have been converted to cattle pastures, generating complex landscapes where different habitats are represented by small patches with an uneven spatial distribution. Here, we describe how bird communities respond to the different elements present in a livestock landscape that was originally dominated by tropical moist forest. We surveyed six habitats: open pastures, pastures with shrubs, early‐ and middle‐secondary forests, mature forest, and pastures invaded by bracken ferns (Pteridium aquilinum). Bird diversity was high in secondary and mature forests, and low in fern‐invaded sites and open pastures. Fern‐dominated sites had the lowest bird species richness, and trophic guild diversity of all habitats. Habitat structure affected both bird species richness and densities in similar ways. Tree species richness was the habitat attribute that had a bigger positive effect on bird species richness. Bird community structure varied among sampled habitats, separating habitats in two major groups (forests and pastures). Our data indicate that bracken fern‐invaded pastures were the worst habitat condition for avian communities. To increase bird diversity, we recommend to eliminate or manage bracken fern and to increase shrub and tree cover in open pastures to provide food resources and shelter for birds. Finally, we encourage the maintenance of secondary and mature forest remnants as a strategy to conserve resident birds within a landscape dominated by livestock activities.     

The effects of forest fragmentation on species richness on the Obudu Plateau,south‐eastern Nigeria

This study examines how fragmentation through changes in patch size and increasing distances between forest patches affects bird species richness. Numbers of bird species were higher in large forest patches and decrease with decreasing patch size. Bird species richness also decreased with increased isolation of forest patches. Suitable trees should be planted in the gaps between the forests that will create wildlife corridors to maintain connectivity.     

High Bird Species Diversity in Structurally Heterogeneous Farmland in Western Kenya

Tropical ecosystems are globally important for bird diversity. In many tropical regions, land‐use intensification has caused conversion of natural forests into human‐modified habitats, such as secondary forests and heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. Despite previous research, the distribution of bird communities in these forest‐farmland mosaics is not well understood. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of bird diversity and community turnover in a human‐modified Kenyan landscape, we recorded bird communities at 20 sites covering the complete habitat gradient from forest (near natural forest, secondary forest) to farmland (subsistence farmland, sugarcane plantation) using point counts and distance sampling. Bird density and species richness were on average higher in farmland than in forest habitats. Within forest and farmland, bird density and species richness increased with vegetation structural diversity, i.e., were higher in near natural than in secondary forest and in subsistence farmland than in sugarcane plantations. Bird communities in forest and farmland habitats were very distinct and very few forest specialists occurred in farmland habitats. Moreover, insectivorous bird species declined in farmland habitats whereas carnivores and herbivores increased. Our study confirms that tropical farmlands can hardly accommodate forest specialist species. Contrary to most previous studies, our findings show that structurally rich tropical farmlands hold a surprisingly rich and distinct bird community that is threatened by conversion of subsistence farmland into sugarcane plantations. We conclude that conservation strategies in the tropics must go beyond rain forest protection and should integrate structurally heterogeneous agroecosystems into conservation plans that aim at maintaining the diverse bird communities of tropical forest‐farmland mosaics.     

松材线虫侵袭引发的植被演替对鸟类群落的影响

松材线虫(Bursaphelenchusxylophilus)是引起严重森林病害的外来物种,可能导致森林生态系统急剧退化。为了探讨在松材线虫侵袭所引起的森林演替过程中植被结构变化对鸟类群落的影响,我们研究了这些常绿阔叶演替林中的鸟类群落结构。2004年5–6月,我们在浙江省宁波市选择了分别处于3个不同演替阶段的7个样地:包括象山县被松材线虫侵袭5年后的常绿阔叶灌丛和侵袭12年后的常绿阔叶林样地各3个,同时在天童国家级森林公园选择了约40龄的常绿阔叶林样地1个。结果显示,在常绿阔叶灌丛和松材线虫侵袭12年后的常绿阔叶林中,鸟类物种多样性和丰富度均显著高于约40龄常绿阔叶林;3类栖息地的鸟类多度、均匀度均无显著差异;在侵袭12年后的常绿阔叶林中鸟类群落最丰富。多元回归分析结果显示,立地年龄是影响鸟类群落组成的主要因素。     

The influence of a native tree species mix component on bird communities in non‐native coniferous plantations in Ireland

Capsule Norway Spruce plantations with Scots Pine as a secondary tree species had higher bird densities than pure Norway Spruce. Shrub cover was the most important structural variable, influencing bird density, species richness and Simpson’s diversity.

Aims To investigate whether incorporating a native tree component into non‐native coniferous plantations had any effect on bird communities or vegetation structure.

Methods Birds were surveyed in plantations of Norway Spruce mixed with Oak and Scots Pine, each paired with a plantation of pure Norway Spruce. distance was used to generate bird densities. Bird density, species richness and Simpson’s diversity were compared between each mix type and pure Norway Spruce. glms were used to investigate relationships between structural components of plantations and bird data.

Results Bird communities of mixed plantations differed only slightly in their composition from pure Norway Spruce. Bird density was significantly higher in Scots Pine mixes than in Oak mixes or pure Norway Spruce. Neither species richness nor Simpson’s diversity differed significantly between the plantation types. Some vegetation components differed between the plantations and shrub cover was positively associated with bird density, species richness and Simpson’s diversity. The presence of rides also increased bird density.

Conclusions There is a positive effect on bird communities of including a native tree species in non‐native coniferous plantations, but the magnitude of the effect is small. The influence of shrub cover on birds suggests that forest management may play an important role in determining the utility of plantations for birds. We recommend the establishment of mixed tree species plantations where possible, although, in the case of Oak mixes, the Norway Spruce appeared to suppress growth of the Oak and thus may be restricting its effect on birds. Changes in management, such as planting Oaks in clumps or heavier thinning of the coniferous component, could address this problem.     

Spatial Variation of Bird Species in Landscapes Dominated by Old-growth Forests in Northern Boreal Finland

An important issue in conservation planning is to study the distribution and abundance patterns of species in natural landscapes. Information of concordant and clumped species distribution pattertns can enhance attempts to focus conservation efforts in sites/areas preferred by various species. We compared bird species abundance, community composition and species distribution patterns in three large old-growth forest areas (size 40–120 km²) in northern boreal Finland on the basis of quantitative bird censuses. Total bird density and species composition, and mean density and variances of the most abundant species were highly similar between the three areas. Most of the bird species were distributed randomly within the areas and species preferring old-growth forests showed compensatory density variation without preference for any sub-area. Mean density of species preferring old-growth forests was significantly higher in the studied large old-growth forests than in smaller old-growth forests and was about threefold higher than regional density of species in a predominantly managed landscape matrix. Bird species preferring old-growth forests are probably not dependent on a certain specific part of a virgin boreal forest landscape but rather on the overall size of the high-quality and diverse old-growth forest area.     

Bat and bird diversity along independent gradients of latitude and tree composition in European forests

Species assemblages are shaped by local and continental-scale processes that are seldom investigated together, due to the lack of surveys along independent gradients of latitude and habitat types. Our study investigated changes in the effects of forest composition and structure on bat and bird diversity across Europe. We compared the taxonomic and functional diversity of bat and bird assemblages in 209 mature forest plots spread along gradients of forest composition and vertical structure, replicated in 6 regions spanning from the Mediterranean to the boreal biomes. Species richness and functional evenness of both bat and bird communities were affected by the interactions between latitude and forest composition and structure. Bat and bird species richness increased with broadleaved tree cover in temperate and especially in boreal regions but not in the Mediterranean where they increased with conifer abundance. Bat species richness was lower in forests with smaller trees and denser understorey only in northern regions. Bird species richness was not affected by forest structure. Bird functional evenness increased in younger and denser forests. Bat functional evenness was also influenced by interactions between latitude and understorey structure, increasing in temperate forests but decreasing in the Mediterranean. Covariation between bat and bird abundances also shifted across Europe, from negative in southern forests to positive in northern forests. Our results suggest that community assembly processes in bats and birds of European forests are predominantly driven by abundance and accessibility of feeding resources, i.e., insect prey, and their changes across both forest types and latitudes.     

鸟类迁徙与滨海旅游项目关系——以碧海银沙为例

2018年7月-2019年5月,采用样线法和样点法对启东长江口(北支)自然保护区恒大海上威尼斯碧海银沙海水浴场内鸟类多样性进行了调查,共记录到鸟类9目23科51种,其中鸻形目、雁形目、鹳形目、鸊鷉目等水鸟为鸟类群落的构成主体。不同季节鸟类多样性指数(H)依次为秋季迁徙期>春季迁徙期>夏季繁殖期>越冬期,鸟种由多至少依次为越冬期>秋季迁徙期>春季迁徙期>夏季繁殖期,鸟类数量由多至少依次为越冬期>春季迁徙期>秋季迁徙期>夏季繁殖期。从客流季节集中指数R值来看,碧海银沙旅游区客流量受季节影响变动明显,春、秋、冬三季客流量占比过低。对客流量与鸟类多样性相关指标进行相关性分析,发现二者整体呈负相关,月客流量与鸟类种数相关性较高。本研究探讨了滨海旅游与鸟类迁徙之间的关系,为滨海旅游景区在协调旅游与鸟类迁徙的时空错峰管理提供决策依据。     

Forest edges have high conservation value for bird communities in mosaic landscapes

A major conservation challenge in mosaic landscapes is to understand how trait‐specific responses to habitat edges affect bird communities, including potential cascading effects on bird functions providing ecosystem services to forests, such as pest control. Here, we examined how bird species richness, abundance and community composition varied from interior forest habitats and their edges into adjacent open habitats, within a multi‐regional sampling scheme. We further analyzed variations in Conservation Value Index (CVI), Community Specialization Index (CSI) and functional traits across the forest‐edge‐open habitat gradient. Bird species richness, total abundance and CVI were significantly higher at forest edges while CSI peaked at interior open habitats, i.e., furthest from forest edge. In addition, there were important variations in trait‐ and species‐specific responses to forest edges among bird communities. Positive responses to forest edges were found for several forest bird species with unfavorable conservation status. These species were in general insectivores, understorey gleaners, cavity nesters and long‐distance migrants, all traits that displayed higher abundance at forest edges than in forest interiors or adjacent open habitats. Furthermore, consistently with predictions, negative edge effects were recorded in some forest specialist birds and in most open‐habitat birds, showing increasing densities from edges to interior habitats. We thus suggest that increasing landscape‐scale habitat complexity would be beneficial to declining species living in mosaic landscapes combining small woodlands and open habitats. Edge effects between forests and adjacent open habitats may also favor bird functional guilds providing valuable ecosystem services to forests in longstanding fragmented landscapes.