雷帕霉素对人胰腺癌细胞SW1990的mTOR信号通路的影响

目的:研究雷帕霉素对人胰腺癌细胞SW1990的mTOR信号通路的影响。方法:采用免疫细胞化学证实mTOR信号通路的存在,通过CCK-8法研究雷帕霉素对胰腺癌细胞增殖的影响,通过Western blot和real time PCR分别从蛋白水平和基因水平研究雷帕霉素对mTOR及其下游分子的表达。结果:免疫细胞化学结果显示p-mTOR、p-p70S6K、p-4E-BP1在细胞质中均呈阳性;CCK-8法显示雷帕霉素能明显抑制细胞增殖(P<0.05);Western blot结果显示随着雷帕霉素浓度的增加,p-mTOR、p-p70S6K表达明显减少,而p-4E-BP1蛋白表达明显增加(P<0.05);Real-time PCR结果显示随雷帕霉素浓度的增加,CyclinD1、VEGF、c-myc基因表达明显减少(P<0.05)。结论:人胰腺癌细胞系SW1990中存在mTOR信号通路并处于激活状态;雷帕霉素抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖与雷帕霉素抑制mTOR信号通路活化有关。     

饲料硒含量对黄颡鱼肠系膜脂肪组织中脂类代谢和miRNAs表达水平的影响

使用3种不同硒含量的饲料饲养黄颡鱼12周, 研究饲料硒含量对黄颡鱼(Pelteobagrus fulvidraco)肠系膜脂肪组织脂类代谢和miRNAs表达水平的影响, 饲料硒含量分别为0.03(低硒组)、0.25(适宜硒组)和6.39 mg Se/kg饲料(高硒组)。结果表明, 相比较于适宜硒组, 高硒和低硒组中甘油三酯(TG)含量显著升高(P<0.05), 葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶(G6PD)和6-磷酸葡萄糖脱氢酶(6PGD)的酶活性在低硒组中活性显著下降(P<0.05), 在高硒组中活性显著上升(P<0.05); 异柠檬酸脱氢酶(ICDH)的酶活性在低硒组中没有显著性变化(P>0.05), 在高硒组中显著下降(P<0.05); 苹果酸酶(ME)和脂肪酸合成酶(FAS)的酶活性在低硒和高硒组中均显著上升(P<0.05)。相比于适宜硒组, 在高硒组miR-26a、miR-183、miR-135、let-7b、let-7c和let-7g的表达量显著上升(P<0.05), 而在低硒组中没有显著性差异(P>0.05); miR-181a-5p和let-7e在低硒组中显著上升(P<0.05), 在高硒组中没有显著性差异(P>0.05); miR-130和miR-203a在低硒和高硒组中表达量均显著上升(P<0.05); miR-200a、miR-143、let-7d和let-7f在低硒组中表达量显著下降同时在高硒组中表达量上升(P<0.05)。miR-143、miR-203a和miR-130在脂肪组织中高表达, 且对硒产生强响应, 通过TargetScanFish6.2和miRwalk3.0共预测3个miRNA的靶基因, 并对靶基因进行KEGG富集分析, 结果显示, miR-143的靶基因在矿物盐吸收、不饱和脂肪酸生物合成、胰岛素通路、自噬、脂肪酸代谢、鞘脂类代谢、调节脂肪细胞脂肪分解和甘油磷脂代谢等途径中显著富集(P<0.05, FDR≤0.05); miR-203a的靶基因在胰岛素抵抗、胰岛素通路、调节脂肪细胞脂肪分解和自噬等代谢途径、信号通路中显著富集(P<0.05, FDR≤0.05); miR-130的靶基因在胰岛素通路、胰岛素抵抗、自噬、鞘脂类代谢、调节脂肪细胞脂肪分解和mTOR通路中显著富集(P<0.05, FDR≤0.05)。综合分析发现, miR-143、miR-203a和miR-130的靶基因共同富集在脂肪酸合成、调节脂肪细胞脂肪分解、胰岛素抵抗等脂代谢相关的通路中, 选取共富集通路中的靶基因进行qPCR检测, 结果显示fas、碳水化合物反应元件结合蛋白α(chrebpα)、肉碱棕榈酰转移酶1α(cpt1α)、激素敏感酯酶(hsl)、固醇调节元件结合蛋白(srebp1)、过氧化物酶体增殖剂激活受体α(pparα)和脂肪组织甘油三酯酶(atgl)的表达趋势与miR-143、miR-203a和miR-130的表达趋势相符合, 推测饲料硒缺乏和过量诱导黄颡鱼肠系膜脂肪组织脂质沉积是通过诱导miR-143、miR-203a和miR-130的表达量上调, 进而负调控靶基因chrebpa、cpt1a、hsl、srebp1、ppara和atgl的表达实现。     

乙肝病毒X 蛋白通过激活NF-κB 信号通路上调ABCG2 的表达

目的:研究乙肝病毒X蛋白(HBx)通过核因子-κB(NF-κB)信号通路对半转运蛋白(ABCG2)的调节作用。方法:用特异性的NF-κB信号通路阻断剂PDTC阻断NF-κB信号通路,荧光双标激光扫描共聚焦显微镜观察L02细胞系转染HBx基因前后及PDTC加入前后NF-κB信号通路的激活、失活情况,同时用Real-time PCR和Western Blot技术检测转染前后及PDTC加入前后ABCG2在mRNA及蛋白水平的表达变化。结果:以L02细胞为参照,转染HBx基因后的L02-HBx细胞NF-κB信号通路被激活,ABCG2 mRNA和蛋白水平分别增加3.62±0.15和4.61±0.73倍,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);PDTC作用24h后L02/HBx细胞NF-κB信号通路阻断,ABCG2 mRNA和蛋白表达分别为2.15±0.32倍和2.37±0.55倍,与未加入PDTC作用的L02-HBx细胞相比均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:NF-κB信号通路是HBx上调ABCG2表达的途径之一。     

急性氨氮胁迫下大弹涂鱼解毒代谢途径的研究

为探明大弹涂鱼(Boleophthalmus pectinirostris)在氨氮环境适应过程中的氨转化及代谢机制,通过氨氮(8 mmol/L NH4Cl)胁迫的方法对大弹涂鱼进行了72 h急性实验;利用酶活性测定方法检测了氨代谢相关酶:谷氨酰胺合成酶(Glutamine synthetase,GS)活性及血氨浓度;酶联免疫技术检测氨代谢协同转运蛋白:碳酸酐酶(Carbonic anhydrase,CA)、钠氢交换蛋白3(Na+/H+exchanger,NHE3)表达水平;运用qPCR技术测定急性氨氮胁迫下大弹涂鱼氨代谢相关基因:GS、CA15、NHE,以及氨转运蛋白(Ammonium transporter Rh type C-1,Rhcg1)基因mRNA的相对表达变化情况。结果表明:在急性氨氮胁迫下,大弹涂鱼血氨浓度呈先上升(12 h)后下降至平稳状态的变化趋势。肝脏GS基因表达量在12 h和48 h显著上升,酶活性在24 h显著上升。鳃中NHE3蛋白表达水平与GS活性变化趋势相同,而CA蛋白水平分别在胁迫后12 h和48 h显著上升。排氨相关基因CA15,NHE,Rhcg1的表达量在氨氮胁迫下均有不同程度的上调,其中NHE基因最早(24 h)上调,而CA15和Rhcg1在48 h显著上升,表明其可能共同参与离子氨的排泄。研究结果表明,氨氮胁迫下大弹涂鱼主要通过两种途径进行氨代谢:(1)在肝脏GS的作用下合成无毒的谷氨酰胺以避免氨在体内过量积累;(2)在鳃组织CA作用下使CO2质子化提供H+,协同NHE3,Rhcg1蛋白复合体实现氨排泄过程。     

LPS/D-gal诱导小鼠急性肝炎模型及mTOR信号的变化

目的探索LPS/D-gal诱导的急性肝炎中mTOR信号的变化。方法LPS/D-gal通过腹腔注射ICR雌性小鼠诱导急性肝炎模型。观察记录24h内的存活率或在注射后6h收集血清和肝脏组织样本,进行相关的分析。结果LPS/D-gal注射24h内引起小鼠急性死亡。注射后6h,引起血清中转氨酶水平明显升高。肝脏组织炎性因子Tnfa和Il6表达水平上调。HE染色显示明显的炎症细胞浸润,研究结果表明LPS/D-gal可诱导ICR小鼠成为急性肝炎动物模型。此外,肝脏组织免疫印迹分析发现,mTOR和NF-κB信号通路被激活,凋亡相关蛋白Caspase-3的活性增加,凋亡特征性的DNA片段化也显著增强。然而mTOR信号的抑制剂雷帕霉素并不能控制LPS/D-gal引起的肝脏凋亡和提高存活率。结论mTOR信号在LPS/D-gal诱导的急性肝炎的致病机制中可能发挥多重作用。     

红景天苷调节AMPK/mTOR/ULK1信号通路对结肠癌SW480细胞裸鼠的肝脏损伤的影响

摘要 目的：探讨红景天苷（Sal）调节单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶（AMPK）/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白（mTOR）/Unc51样激酶1（ULK1）信号通路对结肠癌SW480细胞裸鼠肝脏损伤的影响。方法：通过皮下注射SW480细胞悬浮液建立肝转移裸鼠模型,将造模后的裸鼠随机分为模型组、Sal低剂量（Sal-L,50 mg/kg Sal）组、Sal中剂量（Sal-M,100 mg/kg Sal）组、Sal高剂量（Sal-H,200 mg/kg Sal）组,Sal-H+AMPK抑制剂（Compound C,200 mg/kg Sal+10 mg/kg Compound C）组,以未接种SW480细胞悬液的裸鼠作为对照组。腹部主动脉取血,检测裸鼠血清中丙氨酸氨基转移酶（AST）、天冬氨酸氨基转移酶（ALT）水平;处死裸鼠,检测肝转移瘤数目及肝脏重量;HE染色观察肝脏组织病理变化;qRT-PCR检测肝脏组织中AMPK、mTOR、ULK1 mRNA表达水平;Western blot检测肝脏组织中自噬（Beclin1、p62）蛋白及通路相关蛋白表达。结果：与对照组相比,模型组裸鼠组织中出现肝转移瘤,肝脏重量、AST、ALT水平、mTORmRNA、ULK1 mRNA、p62表达显著增加（P<0.05）;Beclin1、AMPK mRNA及蛋白表达显著降低（P<0.05）;与模型组相比,Sal-L、Sal-M、Sal-H组肝转移瘤数目、肝脏重量、AST、ALT水平、mTORmRNA、ULK1 mRNA、p62表达显著降低（P<0.05）;Beclin1、AMPK mRNA及蛋白表达显著增加（P<0.05）;与Sal-H组相比,Sal-H+Compound C组肝转移瘤数目、肝脏重量、AST、ALT水平、mTORmRNA、ULK1 mRNA、p62表达显著增加（P<0.05）;Beclin1、AMPK mRNA及蛋白表达显著降低（P<0.05）。结论：Sal可通过减少裸鼠肝转移瘤形成,保护裸鼠肝脏,其机制可能与激活AMPK/mTOR/ULK1信号通路,促进肝脏自噬有关。     

饲料脂肪水平对大菱鲆幼鱼TOR信号通路的影响

研究旨在探究饲料脂肪水平对大菱鲆(Scophthalmus maximus)幼鱼雷帕霉素受体(TOR)信号通路的影响。以大菱鲆幼鱼[初始体重(8.6±0.01) g]为实验对象, 配制脂肪水平分别为11.69% (适宜脂肪组)和16.58% (高脂组)的2种等氮饲料在室内循环水系统中进行投喂实验, 养殖周期为97d。结果显示: (1)饲料脂肪水平升高对大菱鲆幼鱼存活和特定生长率(SGR)无显著影响(P>0.05)。(2)与适宜脂肪组相比, 肝脏中TOR和4EBP1 mRNA水平在高脂组上调(P<0.05)而4EBP2 mRNA水平在高脂组下调(P<0.05)。此外, 与适宜脂肪组相比, 肌肉中TOR和4EBP1 mRNA水平在高脂组下调(P<0.05)而4EBP2 mRNA水平在高脂组无显著变化。(3)饲料脂肪水平显著影响AKT、TOR和4EBPs磷酸化水平。肝脏中p-AKT (T308和S473)/AKT、p-mTOR(S2448)/mTOR和p-4EBP1 (T37/46)/4EBP1在高脂组显著高于适宜脂肪组,而p-p70S6K (T389)/p70S6K在高脂组显著低于适宜脂肪组。肌肉中p-AKT (S473)/AKT、p-mTOR (S2448)/mTOR和p-4EBP1 (T37/46)/4EBP1在高脂组显著低于适宜脂肪组,而p-p70S6K (T389)/p70S6K在高脂组显著高于适宜脂肪组。结果表明: 大菱鲆幼鱼肝脏和肌肉TOR、4EBP1和4EBP2的mRNA表达量与AKT、TOR、4EBP1和p70 S6K磷酸化受到饲料脂肪水平调控, 饲料脂肪水平升高, 激活了肝脏TOR信号通路, 同时肌肉TOR信号通路受到部分抑制。     

越冬饥饿胁迫对草鱼机体生化组成和糖脂蛋白代谢相关基因转录水平的影响

为了探讨草鱼(Ctenopharyngodon idellus)在越冬期间能量利用的代谢适应机制, 将草鱼初始体重[(1053.33±16.11) g]置于室外水泥培育池, 分别在自然越冬饥饿0、1、2、4、8、12和16周后进行采样, 进行肌肉常规成分、血清能量代谢物、组织糖原、甘油三酯含量及AMP活化蛋白激酶和糖脂蛋白代谢相关基因转录水平的检测。结果显示: 越冬饥饿1周后, 草鱼肌肉各常规成分含量显著变化(P<0.05); 随着越冬饥饿时间的延长, 血清甘油三酯(TG)、甘油(Glycerol)、总蛋白(TP)、总胆固醇(TCHO)和血糖(GLU)含量先显著降低(P<0.05), 随后保持稳定, 游离脂肪酸(Free fatty acids)含量显著上升(P<0.05); 肝胰脏糖原和肌肉糖原及肝胰脏、肌肉和脂肪组织TG含量显著降低(P<0.05); 血清ATP、ADP和AMP含量显著降低, ADP+AMP/ATP比值显著升高(P<0.05); 肝胰脏、肌肉及腹腔脂肪ampk α1、ampk α2基因表达显著上升(P<0.05), 下游糖脂及蛋白代谢相关基因转录水平显著上升(包括atgl、hsl、cpt1α、cd36等脂分解相关基因; gk、pfk、pk等糖酵解相关基因; gldh、 igf-1等蛋白分解相关基因)或显著下调(acc、fas等脂合成相关基因; creb、foxo1、pgc-1α、pepck、g6pase、glut2等糖异生相关基因; tor、s6k等蛋白合成相关基因)(P<0.05)。研究表明, 草鱼在越冬饥饿期间, 血清、肝胰脏、肌肉和脂肪组织生化组成发生了上述变化的同时, 越冬饥饿胁迫激活了AMPK通路, 促进了各组织糖酵解、脂质分解、脂肪酸β氧化、脂肪酸转运及蛋白分解的进程, 抑制了糖原合成、脂质合成和蛋白合成的过程, 进而维持了机体能量稳态。     

低蛋白饲料补充必需氨基酸对异育银鲫生长、氨基酸转运和mTOR信号通路相关基因的影响

实验以初重为(12.71±0.11) g的异育银鲫“中科5号”(Carassius gibelio var.CAS V)为研究对象,基于异育银鲫必需氨基酸需求量,探究在低蛋白饲料中补充必需氨基酸对异育银鲫生长、消化、氨基酸转运和mTOR信号通路相关基因表达的影响。实验设计3组等能饲料:CON组(35%粗蛋白)、LP组(28%粗蛋白)和LP+EAA组(28%粗蛋白+晶体氨基酸),养殖周期为50d。实验结果显示:低蛋白饲料中补充必需氨基酸显著提高异育银鲫生长性能(P<0.05),并与CON组无显著差异(P>0.05);LP+EAA组的肝脏谷草转氨酶活性显著高于LP组(P<0.05),而谷丙转氨酶活性各组间无显著差异(P>0.05);补充必需氨基酸对肠道中胰蛋白酶和淀粉酶活性有显著影响(P<0.05),而对糜蛋白酶和脂肪酶无显著影响(P>0.05)。肠道中cat2、asct2和b⁰at1三种氨基酸转运蛋白显著上调(P<0.05),LP组的b^0,+at的相对表达量显著下调(P<0.05),而pept1的...     

多囊肾病小型猪肾脏组织中增殖和凋亡的改变

目的:观察ADPKD小型猪肾脏组织中细胞增殖和凋亡的改变。方法:使用PKD1基因敲除的小型猪模型,用Western blot和免疫组化方法检测肾脏组织中细胞增殖指标PCNA;增殖相关的mTOR信号通路分子(phospho-mTOR、phospho-p70S6、phospho-4EBP1)和ERK信号通路分子(phospho-PKA、phospho-MEK、phospho-ERK)的表达水平以及内皮细胞粘附分子CD31以及凋亡相关蛋白Bcl-2、Bax、caspase 3的表达变化。结果:在ADPKD小型猪肾脏组织中,增殖指标PCNA表达显著升高。mTOR信号通路分子phospho-mTOR、phospho-p70S6、phospho-4EBP1水平明显升高,ERK信号通路分子中phospho-PKA、phospho-MEK、phospho-ERK水平明显升高。CD31表达明显升高,Bax/Bcl-2的比值以及caspase 3的表达水平显著升高。结论:本研究显示在ADPKD小型猪肾脏组织中,细胞增殖和凋亡信号通路明显激活。     

鳜plin2生物信息学分析、组织表达及其在肝脏脂肪蓄积中的作用

为探究鱼类脂滴包被蛋白plin2(Perilipin 2)基因的结构和功能,研究成功地克隆并鉴定出鳜(Sinipercachuatsi)plin2的2个亚型,分别命名为plin2a和plin2b.氨基酸多重比对发现其编码序列与刺鱼(Gasterosteus aculeatus)具有高度的同源性.结构域分析发现鳜plin...     

Shear Stress Induces Phenotypic Modulation of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells via AMPK/mTOR/ULK1-Mediated Autophagy

Phenotypic modulation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is involved in the pathophysiological processes of the intracranial aneurysms (IAs). Although shear stress has been implicated in the proliferation, migration, and phenotypic conversion of VSMCs, the molecular mechanisms underlying these events are currently unknown. In this study, we investigated whether shear stress(SS)-induced VSMC phenotypic modulation was mediated by autophagy involved in adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/Unc-51-like kinase 1 (ULK1) pathway. The results show that shear stress could inhibit the expression of key VSMC contractile genes and induce pro-inflammatory/matrix-remodeling genes levels, contributing to VSMCs phenotypic switching from a contractile to a synthetic phenotype. More importantly, Shear stress also markedly increased the levels of the autophagy marker microtubule-associated protein light chain 3-II (LC3II), Beclin-1, and p62 degradation. The autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) significantly blocked shear-induced phenotypic modulation of VSMCs. To further explore the molecular mechanism involved in shear-induced autophagy, we found that shear stress could activate AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 signaling pathway in VSMCs. Compound C, a pharmacological inhibitor of AMPK, significantly reduced the levels of p-AMPK and p-ULK, enhanced p-mTOR level, and finally decreased LC3II and Beclin-1 level, which suggested that activated AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 signaling was related to shear-mediated autophagy. These results indicate that shear stress promotes VSMC phenotypic modulation through the induction of autophagy involved in activating the AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 pathway.     

mTOR in programmed cell death and its therapeutic implications

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase, is involved in cellular metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell death. Programmed cell death (PCD) assists in eliminating aging, damaged, or neoplastic cells, and is indispensable for sustaining normal growth, fighting pathogenic microorganisms, and maintaining body homeostasis. mTOR has crucial functions in the intricate signaling pathway network of multiple forms of PCD. mTOR can inhibit autophagy, which is part of PCD regulation. Cell survival is affected by mTOR through autophagy to control reactive oxygen species production and the degradation of pertinent proteins. Additionally, mTOR can regulate PCD in an autophagy-independent manner by affecting the expression levels of related genes and phosphorylating proteins. Therefore, mTOR acts through both autophagy-dependent and -independent pathways to regulate PCD. It is conceivable that mTOR exerts bidirectional regulation of PCD, such as ferroptosis, according to the complexity of signaling pathway networks, but the underlying mechanisms have not been fully explained. This review summarizes the recent advances in understanding mTOR-mediated regulatory mechanisms in PCD. Rigorous investigations into PCD-related signaling pathways have provided prospective therapeutic targets that may be clinically beneficial for treating various diseases.     

Targeting the mTOR Signaling Network for Alzheimer’s Disease Therapy

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase that can sense environmental stimuli such as growth factors, energy state, and nutrients. It is essential for cell growth, proliferation, and metabolism, but dysregulation of mTOR signaling pathway is also associated with a number of human diseases. Encouraging data from experiments have provided sufficient evidence for the relationship between the mTOR signaling pathway and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Upregulation of mTOR signaling pathway is thought to play an important role in major pathological processes of AD. The mTOR inhibitors such as rapamycin have been proven to ameliorate the AD-like pathology and cognitive deficits effectively in a broad range of animal models. Application of mTOR inhibitors indicates the potential value of reducing mTOR activity as an innovative therapeutic strategy for AD. In this review, we will focus on the recent process in understanding mTOR signaling pathway and the vital involvement of this signaling pathway in the pathology of AD, and discuss the application of mTOR inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of AD.     

Integrin‐linked kinase is involved in TNF‐α‐induced inducible nitric‐oxide synthase expression in myoblasts

Tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) is a pleiotropic cytokine produced by activated macrophages. Nitric oxide (NO) is a highly reactive nitrogen radical implicated in inflammatory responses. We investigated the signaling pathway involved in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and NO production stimulated by TNF‐α in cultured myoblasts. TNF‐α stimulation caused iNOS expression and NO production in myoblasts (G7 cells). TNF‐α‐mediated iNOS expression was attenuated by integrin‐linked kinase (ILK) inhibitor (KP392) and siRNA. Pretreatment with Akt inhibitor, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor (rapamycin), NF‐κB inhibitor (PDTC), and IκB protease inhibitor (TPCK) also inhibited the potentiating action of TNF‐α. Stimulation of cells with TNF‐α increased ILK kinase activity. TNF‐α also increased the Akt and mTOR phosphorylation. TNF‐α mediated an increase of NF‐κB‐specific DNA–protein complex formation, p65 translocation into nucleus, NF‐κB‐luciferase activity was inhibited by KP392, Akt inhibitor, and rapamycin. Our results suggest that TNF‐α increased iNOS expression and NO production in myoblasts via the ILK/Akt/mTOR and NF‐κB signaling pathway. J. Cell. Biochem. 109: 1244–1253, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

mTORC1 pathway in DNA damage response

Living organisms have evolved various mechanisms to control their metabolism and response to various stresses, allowing them to survive and grow in different environments. In eukaryotes, the highly conserved mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway integrates both intracellular and extracellular signals and serves as a central regulator of cellular metabolism, proliferation and survival. A growing body of evidence indicates that mTOR signaling is closely related to another cellular protection mechanism, the DNA damage response (DDR). Many factors important for the DDR are also involved in the mTOR pathway. In this review, we discuss how these two pathways communicate to ensure an efficient protection of the cell against metabolic and genotoxic stresses. We also describe how anticancer therapies benefit from simultaneous targeting of the DDR and mTOR pathways.     

Molecular characterization of skeletal muscle atrophy in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutant huntingtin, is characterized by a catabolic phenotype. To determine the mechanisms underlying muscle wasting, we examined key signal transduction pathways governing muscle protein metabolism, apoptosis, and autophagy in R6/2 mice, a well-characterized transgenic model of HD. R6/2 mice exhibited increased adiposity, elevated energy expenditure, and decreased body weight and lean mass without altered food intake. Severe skeletal muscle wasting accounted for a majority of the weight loss. Protein synthesis was unexpectedly increased 19% in gastrocnemius muscle, which was associated with overactivation of basal and refeeding-stimulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, elevated Akt expression and Ser(473) phosphorylation, and decreased AMPK Thr(172) phosphorylation. Moreover, mRNA abundance of atrogenes muscle ring finger-1 and atrophy F-box, was markedly attenuated during fasting and refeeding, and the urinary excretion of 3-methylhistidine was decreased, arguing against a role for the ubiquitin proteasome-mediated proteolysis in the atrophy. In contrast, mRNA expression of several caspase genes and genes involved in the extrinsic or intrinsic apoptotic pathway, caspase-3/7, -8, and -9 activity, protein abundance of caspase-3 and -9, Fas, and Fadd, and cytochrome c release were elevated. Protein expressions of LC3B-I and -II, beclin-I, and atg5 and -7 in muscle were upregulated. Thus, mutant huntingtin in skeletal muscle results in increased protein synthesis and mTOR signaling, which is countered by activation of the apoptotic and autophagic pathways, contributing to an overall catabolic phenotype and the severe muscle wasting.     

The human glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue liraglutide regulates pancreatic beta-cell proliferation and apoptosis via an AMPK/mTOR/P70S6K signaling pathway

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of diabetes, has been proven to protect pancreatic beta cells through many pathways. Recent evidence demonstrates that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), as a metabolic regulator, coordinates beta-cell protein synthesis through regulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. The purpose of the present study was to explore whether liraglutide, a human GLP-1 analogue, protects beta cells via AMPK/mTOR signaling. We evaluated INS-1 beta-cell line proliferation using the Cell Counting Kit-8, and examined the effect of GLP-1 on cellular ATP levels using an ATP assay kit. mTOR pathway protein expression levels were tested by Western blotting and glucolipotoxicity-induced cell apoptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry. Liraglutide increased beta-cell viability at an optimum concentration of 100 nmol/L in the presence of 11.1 or 30 mmol/L glucose. Liraglutide (100 nmol/L) activated mTOR and its downstream effectors, 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase and eIF4E-binding protein-1, in INS-1 cells. This effect was abated by pathway blockers: the AMPK activator AICAR and the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Furthermore, the effect of liraglutide on beta-cell proliferation was inhibited by AICAR and rapamycin. Liraglutide increased cellular ATP levels. In addition, liraglutide protected beta cells from glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptosis. This response was also prevented by rapamycin treatment. These results suggest that the enhancement of beta-cell proliferation by that GLP-1 receptor agonist liraglutide is mediated, at least in part, by AMPK/mTOR signaling. Liraglutide also prevents beta-cell glucolipotoxicity by activating mTOR.