主成分分析不同浓度CaCl_2对NaCl胁迫下‘达米娜’葡萄的缓解效应

为探讨钙对葡萄盐害的缓解效应,研究了200 mmol·L~(-1) NaCl胁迫下,不同浓度CaCl_2对‘达米娜’葡萄沙培一年生自根苗的影响。结果显示:NaCl胁迫下,‘达米娜’葡萄根系、叶片相对电导率、叶片超氧阴离子自由基(O_2ˉ·)产生速率和过氧化氢(H_2O_2)含量显著升高,而超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、过氧化物酶(POD)和抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)活性显著降低,新梢长度和总生物量显著降低。5和10 mmol·L~(-1) CaCl_2显著降低了NaCl胁迫下根系、叶片相对电导率、叶片O_2ˉ·产生速率和H_2O_2含量。CaCl_2显著缓解了NaCl胁迫下SOD和CAT活性的下降,15 mmol·L~(-1) CaCl_2显著缓解了POD活性的下降,而10、15和20 mmol·L~(-1) CaCl_2显著缓解了APX活性的下降。高浓度(25 mmol·L~(-1))CaCl_2处理的叶片相对电导率、O_2ˉ·产生速率和H_2O_2含量显著高于NaCl胁迫的,而POD、APX活性、新梢长和植株总生物量与NaCl胁迫的差异不显著。主成分分析表明10 mmol·L~(-1)是CaCl_2缓解200 mmol·L~(-1) NaCl胁迫对‘达米娜’葡萄的最适浓度,可能与叶片中较高的抗氧化酶活性和较少的活性氧积累有关。     

外源水杨酸对NaCl胁迫下大豆种子萌发和幼苗生长生理的影响

以大豆种子、幼苗为试验材料,采用砂培的方法,研究了0.2mmol·L-1外源水杨酸(SA)对100mmol·L-1 NaCl胁迫下大豆种子萌发、幼苗形态及生物量、膜脂过氧化和抗氧化酶活性的影响。结果显示:NaCl胁迫下,大豆种子萌发和幼苗生长受到显著抑制,且随着胁迫时间的延长(0~3d),大豆幼苗相对电解质渗漏率、硫代巴比妥酸活性产物(TBARS)含量显著升高,超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)活性均明显降低。外源SA促进NaCl胁迫下大豆种子萌发和根茎生长,增加幼苗生物量积累,降低幼苗叶片相对电解质渗漏率和TBARS含量,增强其叶片SOD、CAT、APX活性。研究表明,NaCl胁迫能显著抑制大豆种子萌发和幼苗生长,而一定浓度的外源SA能有效提高NaCl胁迫下大豆种子活力及幼苗抗氧化酶活性,减轻膜脂过氧化程度,缓解NaCl胁迫所造成的伤害,提高大豆幼苗抗盐胁迫的能力。     

短期盐胁迫对苦苣菜幼苗叶片抗逆生理指标的影响

采用蛭石中浇灌Hoagland营养液的基质培养方法,以苗期苦苣菜为实验材料,设置5个NaCl处理浓度(0(CK)、66、133、200、250、300mmol·L~(-1)),分别在处理1、2、3d采集苦苣菜叶片,测定其Na~+、K~+、丙二醛(MDA)、可溶性糖,可溶性蛋白质及游离脯氨酸含量,以及超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)和过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性,探讨短期盐胁迫下苦苣菜叶片生理指标的变化特征,为进一步研究野生物种的耐盐性及耐盐机制提供理论依据。结果表明:(1)盐胁迫1d和2d、NaCl浓度为66~200mmol·L~(-1)时,苦苣菜叶片Na~+含量无显著变化,K~+含量和K~+/Na~+较对照显著增大,并在200mmol·L~(-1) NaCl处理下达到最大值;盐胁迫3d时,叶片K~+含量与胁迫前2d的变化趋势相似,Na~+含量随盐浓度升高显著增大,K~+/Na~+除66mmol·L~(-1) NaCl处理外均随盐浓度升高而显著减小。(2)盐胁迫1~3d时,苦苣菜叶片可溶性蛋白质、可溶性糖含量均随盐浓度升高而先增后减,可溶性蛋白质含量在胁迫1~2d、可溶性糖在胁迫2~3d时均在200mmol·L~(-1) NaCl下达到最大值;游离脯氨酸含量在盐胁迫前2d时与可溶性蛋白质、可溶性糖的变化趋势相似,在胁迫3d时随盐浓度升高而显著增大且绝大部分与对照差异显著。(3)苦苣菜叶片SOD、POD、CAT活性在盐胁迫1~3d时均随盐浓度升高而先增后减;在胁迫1~2d时,3种酶活性均在250mmol·L~(-1) NaCl下达到最大值且所有盐浓度下均显著大于对照;在盐胁迫3d时,SOD、POD活性在200mmol·L~(-1) NaCl下达到最大值,CAT活性在133mmol·L~(-1) NaCl下达到最大值且除250、300mmol·L~(-1) NaCl外均与对照差异显著。研究发现,苦苣菜具有较强的耐盐性,能够在盐胁迫(66~300mmol·L~(-1))处理1~3d内进行一系列有效的生理调节,增强自身渗透调节能力及抗氧化能力,表现出较强的吸钾拒钠的特性,基本缓解了Na~+的毒害及渗透压力,但是NaCl浓度超过200mmol·L~(-1)后其渗透调节能力和抗氧化能力均显著降低。     

ABA对盐胁迫下侧柏活性氧代谢及其相关基因表达的研究

以侧柏幼苗为试验材料,采用水培方式,研究不同浓度NaCl(0、100、200、300和400mmol·L~(-1))以及ABA(0、0.5、1、10、100和200μmol·L~(-1)处理对盐胁迫下侧柏幼苗活性氧代谢的影响。结果显示:(1)随着NaCl处理浓度增加,侧柏幼苗叶片过氧化氢(H_2O_2)、丙二醛(MDA)、谷胱甘肽(GSH)和脯氨酸含量,以及抗氧化物酶(SOD、POD和CAT)活性呈上升趋势,而可溶性蛋白含量降低。(2)于300mmol·L~(-1)NaCl胁迫处理48h后进行ABA(1和10μmol·L~(-1))处理,分析发现侧柏幼苗叶片的SOD、POD和CAT活性提高,GSH、脯氨酸和可溶性蛋白含量增加,H_2O_2和MDA的积累减少。(3)NaCl胁迫后,侧柏幼苗叶片活性氧代谢相关基因(Cu/Zn-SOD、CAT、GR、APX、MDAR和GST)的表达水平随ABA浓度增加呈先升后降的趋势,并于10μmol·L~(-1) ABA处理48h时达到峰值。研究表明,适宜浓度ABA通过促进盐胁迫下侧柏幼苗叶片的抗氧化物酶活性,提高渗透调节能力,增加GSH含量,降低H_2O_2和MDA积累,从而有效降低活性氧对侧柏叶片的伤害,保护细胞膜结构的完整,增强其抗盐性。     

NaCl胁迫对红砂萌发的影响及萌发期耐盐性评价

探究盐胁迫对红砂种子萌发及萌发后生长和生理生化指标的影响,为解析红砂萌发期耐盐机制及后续研究提供数据支撑。以盐生植物红砂种子为试验材料,NaCl溶液模拟盐胁迫,研究不同浓度NaCl(0、50、100、150、200、300和400 mmol/L)处理下,红砂种子萌发及萌发后根长、株高、生理生化指标的变化趋势。结果显示:(1)与对照相比,50 mmol/L处理的红砂萌发率升高,植株根长、株高显著增加;随着处理浓度的升高,红砂的萌发时间推迟,萌发率减少,盐害率增加,根长、株高下降显著。当盐浓度增加到400 mmol/L时,红砂不能萌发,但仍保持萌发活力,400 mmol/L胁迫35 d的未萌发种子经复萌处理后,相对萌发率为105.43%。(2)随着NaCl浓度的增加,红砂中的丙二醛(MDA)、脯氨酸(Pro)含量显著增加,过氧化物酶(POD)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性呈现不同程度的增加。(3)分别以相对萌发率、植株全长下降到对照的50%为标准,确定红砂的萌发耐盐阈值为273 mmol/L,最适盐浓度为45.78 mmol/L;萌发后生长耐盐阈值为388.19 mmol/L,生长最适盐浓度为50.59 mmol/L。红砂可在胁迫环境下长期保持萌发活力,待萌发条件适宜时,可快速集中大量萌发;红砂生长阈值浓度大于萌发阈值浓度,说明萌发期是其在盐胁迫下完成生活史的关键时期;随着盐浓度的增加,红砂的生长受到不同程度的抑制,植株在一定胁迫程度内可通过提高POD、SOD活性清除MDA,增加Pro含量从而减少胁迫危害,以维持正常的生理代谢。     

NaCl和Na2CO3胁迫对栓皮栎种子萌发及幼苗生长的影响

为了阐明栓皮栎种子萌发期对盐碱胁迫的耐受性,研究了不同浓度(0、50、100、200和400 mmol/L)NaCl和Na2CO3胁迫对其种子萌发、生长、保护酶活性和有机渗透调节物质等的影响,结果表明:(1)盐碱胁迫对栓皮栎种子的萌发率和发芽指数均没有显著影响;随着Na+浓度的升高,NaCl和Na2CO3处理下的胚根长度、胚根生长速率、胚根鲜重均受到抑制,呈现下降趋势;活力指数和耐盐指数在NaCl胁迫下表现为较低浓度(50 mmol/L)促进,较高浓度(100,200,400 mmol/L)抑制,而在Na2CO3处理下则不断下降;相对盐害率在两种处理下均表现波动趋势。(2)通过建立活力指数、胚根长度等与Na+浓度的回归方程,发现在NaCl胁迫下栓皮栎种子活力指数、胚根鲜重、胚根长度和胚根生长速率的临界值分别为300.0、300.0、333.6、369.6 mmol/L。(3)在NaCl和Na2CO3胁迫下,随Na+浓度的增加,丙二醛含量增幅显著;NaCl处理下的SOD(superoxide dismutase)活性呈现先升高后降低的趋势,而Na2CO3处理下则均低于对照;POD(peroxidase)活性变化不显著;CAT(catalase)活性均表现为先降低后升高;脯氨酸、可溶性蛋白和可溶性糖含量均随着Na+浓度的升高而呈现不同程度上升趋势。(4)等Na+浓度时,NaCl处理下的各项生长指标均高于Na2CO3处理,丙二醛、保护酶活性及渗透调节物质含量均低于Na2CO3处理,说明Na2CO3对栓皮栎种子的影响比NaCl更为显著。     

外源激素对福建青冈种子易萌性和抗氧化酶活性的影响

为解决珍贵用材树种福建青冈种子易萌和人工育苗困难等问题,以成熟健康未发芽的福建青冈种子为试验材料,以不施外源激素为对照处理,分别利用5个浓度(0、10、20、30、40 mmol·L~(-1))的赤霉素和脱落酸对种子进行处理,并于激素处理后3、5、7、9和13 d测定种子胚根和子叶内抗氧化酶系统的活性。结果表明:2种外源激素处理对福建青冈种子萌发率的影响存在明显差异。随赤霉素浓度增加,种子萌发率呈逐渐增高的趋势,但处理间差异不显著(P0.05)。低浓度(10~20 mmol·L~(-1))脱落酸处理可明显提高种子萌发率,高浓度(30~40 mmol·L~(-1))则呈抑制作用。随着外源激素处理时间的延长,胚根与子叶过氧化物酶(POD)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性均呈先增强后不规则的变化趋势。在不同赤霉素浓度处理下,胚根过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性随时间的延长逐渐增强,子叶CAT活性呈倒"N"型变化趋势。施加40 mmol·L~(-1)脱落酸处理后,福建青冈种子胚根与子叶多酚氧化酶(PPO)活性明显低于对照处理,显著抑制种子萌发,可有效解决种子易萌性问题。     

NaCl胁迫对秋茄幼苗根系抗氧化系统的影响

为探讨红树植物秋茄(Kandelia candel)幼苗根系抗氧化系统对盐胁迫的生理响应,以Hoagland完全营养液沙培秋茄幼苗60 d后,用不同浓度NaCl处理秋茄根系1、3、5、7 d,对其生理生化指标的变化进行研究。结果表明,胁迫相同天数,200和400 mmol L~(-1) NaCl处理的秋茄根系O_2~(-·)和H_2O_2含量保持较低水平,而600 mmol L~(-1) NaCl处理的则明显增加;MDA含量在200和400 mmol L~(-1) NaCl处理下保持稳定,而600 mmol L~(-1) NaCl处理的显著升高;SOD、POD、CAT、APX和GR活性随NaCl浓度升高总体上表现先上升后下降的趋势,处理3和5 d后的酶活性均显著高于对照,而600 mmol L~(-1) NaCl处理7 d后的酶活性明显低于对照;AsA和GSH含量总体上均明显高于对照。因此,秋茄幼苗是通过根系功能较强的抗氧化系统清除活性氧以提高植株的耐盐性。     

GA诱导NaCl胁迫下黄瓜种子萌发和幼苗耐盐性效应

研究外源GA对NaCl胁迫下黄瓜种子萌发和幼苗生长的影响.结果显示:(1)0和75mmol·L-1NaCl处理可促进种子萌发,浓度为100mmol·L-1及以上时,随着浓度的增加,种子萌发受抑程度越严重;(2)150mmol·L-1NaCl胁迫下,添加外源GA可显著提高黄瓜种子发芽率、发芽势、发芽指数、活力指数和a-淀粉酶活性;促进种子萌发,以100和150mg·L-1GA处理效果较好;(3)外源GA显著提高幼苗生物量,提高SOD和POD活性,降低MDA含量,以100mg·L-1GA处理效果较好.研究表明一定范围的外源GA可缓解盐害对黄瓜种子萌发和幼苗生长的抑制作用,诱导其耐盐性的提高.     

外源5-氨基乙酰丙酸对盐胁迫下菘蓝种子萌发及幼苗抗氧化酶活性的影响

采用砂培方式,研究了外源5-氨基乙酰丙酸(ALA)对盐胁迫下菘蓝种子的萌发、幼苗叶片的可溶性糖含量、丙二醛(MDA)含量及其抗氧化酶活性的影响,探讨ALA缓解菘蓝受盐胁迫伤害的响应机制。结果显示:(1)菘蓝种子萌发及幼苗生长在100 mmol·L^-1 NaCl胁迫下受到明显的抑制,种子发芽率、发芽势、发芽指数、活力指数与自然含水量均显著降低,丙二醛含量、可溶性糖含量以及超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)活性显著升高。(2)盐胁迫下适宜浓度的ALA处理显著提高了种子萌发率、自然含水量及SOD、POD和CAT活性,降低了可溶性糖和丙二醛的含量,并以16.7 mg·L^-1 ALA处理盐胁迫下菘蓝种子的发芽率、发芽势最大,其幼苗的SOD、POD、CAT活性最强。研究表明,盐胁迫显著抑制菘蓝种子的萌发及幼苗生长,适宜浓度的ALA能够有效缓解盐胁迫对菘蓝种子萌发及幼苗生长的伤害,提高植株的抗盐性,并以16.7 mg·L^-1 ALA处理效果最佳。     

Y-chromosome Data and Tribal Affiliations of Allenopithecus and Miopithecus

The phylogeny of Old World monkeys has remained unresolved in part because of a lack of resolution in the Cercopithecinae. Competing morphological hypotheses have had Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) and the talapoins (Miopithecus spp.) as basal branches of either the tribe Cercopithecini or the tribe Papionini. Previous molecular analyses have not adequately addressed the issue. To better understand the evolutionary history of these primates, we sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis 3.1 kb of 2 loci (TSPY and SRY) from the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome. Individuals from the genera Allenopithecus, Miopithecus, Erythrocebus, Chlorocebus, and Cercopithecus were surveyed and their sequences compared with those previously published for the Papionini and Colobinae. The results suggest Allenopithecus and Miopithecus are more closely related to the Cercopithecini than Papionini. Our data also support the hypothesis that within the Cercopithecini, Erythrocebus and Chlorocebus share a close evolutionary relationship, distinct from the other members of the tribe.     

Nystatin and killer toxin sensitivity of free and immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae

The inhibitory effect of nystatin and killer toxin on the growth of free and covalently-immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae cells was studied. The resistance of immobilized cells to both agents was accompanied by increased amounts of phospholipids and sterols. The possible relationship between these changes in the membrane composition and the transduction of a signal across the cytoplasmic membrane is discussed.     

Molecular identification and differentiation of Brevibacterium species and strains

Amplified ribosomal DNA restriction enzyme analysis (ARDRA), pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and ribotyping were used to differentiate among 24 strains of Brevibacterium linens, Brevibacterium casei and Brevibacterium epidermidis obtained from type culture collections or isolated from various smear ripened cheeses. ARDRA was applied to the 16S rDNA. B. linens was shown to be a quite heterogenic group with 2 to at least 4 copies of rrn operons per strain with aberrant nucleotide sequences. AccI gave genus specific restriction patterns and was used to separate Brevibacterium from Corynebacterium species. The expected species specificity of TaqI applied to B. linens type culture strains, but not to all strains isolated from cheese. By AvaI restriction, B. casei and B. linens were differentiated from B. epidermidis and the orange pigmented Arthrobacter casei, a new species of coryneform bacteria; by XmnI restriction, B. linens and B. epidermidis were differentiated from B. casei. One of 4 B. linens genotypes could not be distinguished from B. casei by this method. Here, the typical orange B. linens pigments were used for classification, which was confirmed by partial sequencing of the 16S rDNA.     

Evaluation of antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial activities of the resin glycosides and the other metabolites of Scrophularia cryptophila

Resin glycosides are secondary metabolites exclusive to the convolvulaceous plants. In this study, crypthophilic acids A–C (1–3), the first resin glycosides occurring in another family (Scrophulariaceae), and the other constituents of Scrophularia cryptophila were examined for in vitro antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial potentials. Except for crypthophilic acid B (2), all tested compounds exhibited growth-inhibitory effect against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, with l-tryptophan (6) and buddlejasaponin III (7) being the most potent ones (IC₅₀'s 4.1 and 9.7 μg/ml). In contrast, the activity towards Trypanosoma cruzi was poor, and only crypthophilic acid C (3), 6 and 7 were trypanocidal at concentrations above 40 μg/ml. With the exception of 2 and 6, all compounds were active against Leishmania donovani. Harpagide (4) and 3 emerged as the best leishmanicidal agents (IC₅₀'s 2.0 and 5.8 μg/ml). Only compounds 3, 6 and 7 showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum with IC₅₀ values of 4.2, 16.6 and 22.4 μg/ml. Overall the best and broadest spectrum activity was presented by compounds 3 and 7, as they inhibited all four parasitic protozoa. None of the isolates had significant activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MICs >100 μg/ml) or were toxic towards mammalian (L6) cells. This is the first report of antiprotozoal activity for natural resin glycosides, as well as for harpagide (4), acetylharpagide (5), tryptophan (6) and buddlejasaponin III (7).     

Theoretical Study of Antagonists and Inhibitors of Mammalian Adenosine Deaminase: I. Adenosine and Its Aza- and Deazaanalogues

Aza- and deazaanalogues of adenosine, including their 1-protonated forms (except for that of 1-deazaadenosine), were studied by computer computation to find a relationship between their molecular structures and substrate properties for the mammalian adenosine deaminase. The atomic charge distribution and maps of the electrostatic potential around their van der Waals molecular surface were calculated for these compounds using the ab initio STO-3G method. The conformational studies are carried out by the MM⁺ method of molecular mechanics. The mechanism that determines the substrate selectivity of mammalian adenosine deaminase is discussed.     

Pericarp structure and phylogeny of theLamiaceae-Verbenaceae-complex

Pericarp structure was investigated in 158 species of the familiesLamiaceae andVerbenaceae. Data from 221 out of 262 genera ofLamiaceae s.l. and a few ofVerbenaceae s.str. were collected in a table. A cladistic analysis was performed on the basis of pericarp characters only. The abandonment of subfam.Pogostemonoideae as a taxonomic unit is considered. Examples of groups given additional support by similarities in pericarp characters are: (1) the gynobasic-styled labiates (subfamiliesPogostemonoideae, Lamioideae, Nepetoideae); (2) aLamioideae-Pogostemonoideae-group; (3)Nepetoideae; (4) aWestringia-Hemigenia-Hemiandra-Microcorys group (in subfam.Chloranthoideae); (5) aLepechinia-Chaunostoma-group (inNepetoideae); (6) aPrunella-Cleonia-group (inNepetoideae).     

The hernandez and fernandez genes of Drosophila specify eye and antenna

The formation of different structures in Drosophila depends on the combined activities of selector genes and signaling pathways. For instance, the antenna requires the selector gene homothorax, which distinguishes between the leg and the antenna and can specify distal antenna if expressed ectopically. Similarly, the eye is formed by a group of "eye-specifying" genes, among them eyeless, which can direct eye development ectopically. We report here the characterization of the hernandez and fernandez genes, expressed in the antennal and eye primordia of the eye-antenna imaginal disc. The predicted proteins encoded by these two genes have 27% common amino acids and include a Pipsqueak domain. Reduced expression of either hernandez or fernandez mildly affects antenna and eye development, while the inactivation of both genes partially transforms distal antenna into leg. Ectopic expression of either of the two genes results in two different phenotypes: it can form distal antenna, activating genes like homothorax, spineless, and spalt, and it can promote eye development and activates eyeless. Reciprocally, eyeless can induce hernandez and fernandez expression, and homothorax and spineless can activate both hernandez and fernandez when ectopically expressed. The formation of eye by these genes seems to require Notch signaling, since the induction of ectopic eyes and the activation of eyeless by the hernandez gene are suppressed when the Notch function is compromised. Our results show that the hernandez and fernandez genes are required for antennal and eye development and are also able to specify eye or antenna ectopically.     

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen ratio on the growth and sporulation of several biocontrol fungi

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio on six biocontrol fungal strains are reported in this paper. All fungal strains had extensive growth on the media supplemented with 6–12 g l⁻¹ carbon and C:N ratios from 10:1 to 80:1, and differed in nutrient requirements for sporulation. Except for the two strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus, all selected fungi attained the highest spore yields at a C:N ratio of 160:1 when the carbon concentration was 12 g l⁻¹ for Metarhizium anisopliae SQZ-1-21, 6 g l⁻¹ for M. anisopliae RS-4-1 and Trichoderma viride TV-1, and 8 g l⁻¹ for Lecanicillium lecanii CA-1-G. The optimal conditions for P. lilacinus sporulation were 8 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 10:1 for M-14 and 12 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 20:1 for IPC-P, respectively. The results indicated that the influence of carbon concentration and C:N ratio on fungal growth and sporulation is strain dependent; therefore, consideration for the complexity of nutrient requirements is essential for improving yields of fungal biocontrol agents.     

Spatial and temporal patterns of morel fruiting

The biotic and abiotic factors conditioning morel fruit body production are incompletely known. We examined spatial and temporal patterns of Morchella esculenta fruiting over five years in a wooded site in Missouri, USA. Fruiting onset was inversely correlated with spring air and soil temperatures, whereas abundance was positively correlated with rain events (>10 mm) during the 30 d preceding fruiting. The two years with the greatest fruiting had the shortest fruiting seasons (6–7 d). Fruiting season length was positively correlated with soil warming, suggesting that a narrow range of optimum soil temperatures favour the explosive production of fruit bodies. All woody stems of at least 1 cm diam were mapped and stem diameter and crown condition were noted. Morel fruit bodies were significantly closer to stems of Carya spp., Tilia americana and Ulmus americana than predicted by the frequencies of these woody species or their contribution to the total basal area on the site. Although intra-annual clustering of fruit bodies was often observed, inter-annual clustering was not. The spatial pattern of M. esculenta fruiting appears to be associated with vegetation pattern, whereas the onset and abundance of fruiting are determined by the interaction of spring temperatures with availability of supporting precipitation.     

Origin and development of Tool-making behavior in Africa and Asia

Around two-and-a-half million years ago, some hominid populations in Africa began to modify stones and bones in a manner that can be recognized by prehistorians as artifacts, and, by definition, produced the earliest identifiable archaeological record. It is likely that earlier hominid groups also may have had relatively rich tool-using behavioral repertoires similar to that seen in modern chimpanzees (McGrew, 1992), such tools may have been made of perishable materials or minimally modified and thus difficult to identify. This review will focus on the earliest archaeological traces and the spread of hominids out of Africa and into Eurasia.