乙型脑炎病毒野毒株及其不同株减毒株E蛋白基因序列比较

为了解乙脑减毒活疫苗株SA14-12-1-7的神经毒力减毒机 制,用RT-PCR方法分别扩增不同减毒程度毒株的E基因,克隆、测序,继而对各毒株序列进 行比较.结果表明SA14-12-1-7强毒株与SA14-12-1-7-12-1-7株间只有3个氨基酸发生改变( E-107,E-176,E-439),SA14-12-1-7-12-1-7与SA14-12-1-7-9-7和SA14-12-1-7-5-3 株间有另3个氨基酸发生改变(E-138,E-279,E-315).SA14-12-1-7-9-7株与SA14-12-1-7-5-3株只有一个核苷酸NT -405不同,但未引起氨基酸改变.SA14-12-1-7疫苗株除保留SA14-12-1-7-12-1-7和SA14-12-1-7-9-7所改变的6个氨基酸外,另有2个氨基酸发生了改 变(E-177,E-264),共计在E区共发生8个氨基酸的替代.SA14-12-1-7-12-1-7株的 低神经毒力很不稳定而其余各株的弱毒特征很稳定.因此,E-176(Ile→Val),E-439(Lys→Arg)和 E-107(Leu→Phe)可能与神经外和神经内毒力减弱有关.E-138(Gul→Lys),E-315(Ala→Val)和 E-279(Lys→Met)的突变可能与神经毒力的减弱和稳定性相关.     

流行性乙型脑炎病毒减毒株SA14-14-2E基因稳定性研究

为研究乙脑病毒减毒株SA14-14-2 E蛋白基因稳定性,将乙脑病毒减毒株SA14-14-2在原代地鼠肾细胞(PHK)上传至18代,应用RT-PCR分别扩增PHK6代、PHK7代、PHK8代、PHK13代、PHK18代E蛋白基因并测序后,与Genebank中乙脑病毒减毒株SA14-14-2(D90195)进行比较分析。PHK6、PHK7、PHK8代病毒与D90195 E蛋白核苷酸和氨基酸序列完全相同。PHK13、PHK18代病毒与D90195E蛋白核苷酸序列同源性分别为99.8%、99.7%,与D90195E蛋白氨基酸序列同源性分别为99.6%、99.4%。各代次病毒E蛋白与减毒相关氨基酸未发生改变,同时所有突变的氨基酸均非SA14原有的,故不是恢复性突变。结果表明乙脑病毒减毒株SA14-14-2的遗传学特性稳定,从分子水平证明乙脑病毒减毒株SA14-14-2及其生产的疫苗具有安全性。     

乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗生产株SA14-14-2全基因组序列测定及基因遗传稳定性

目的对乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗生产株SA14-14-2株进行全基因组序列测定和分析,并观察该生产株在疫苗制备过程中的基因遗传稳定性。方法根据DNA序列数据库(Gen Bank)公布的SA14-14-2株的序列,设计合成7对引物,提取疫苗生产株SA14-14-2及其工作种子批生产的3批原液、3批成品疫苗的病毒RNA,通过RT-PCR方法扩增SA14-14-2株的cDNA片段,分别克隆到pGEM-T载体,转化至大肠埃希菌DH5α中,挑取阳性菌落克隆、鉴定后测定全序列并对序列进行比较分析,观察毒株在传代的过程中病毒滴度的稳定性。结果乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗生产株SA14-14-2株基因组全长10 976 bp,编码3 433个氨基酸。3批原液和3批成品疫苗的基因组全长为10 977 bp,比较分析发现,在3'端非编码区10 701处多一个G核苷酸的插入。与DNA序列数据库(Genbank)登录号为D90195的全长序列同源性分别是99.9%、99.9%、99.9%、99.9%、99.8%、99.9%、99.8%,其中E蛋白的同源性均为100%。SA14-14-2生产株的病毒滴度为7.22 lg PFU/mL,原液和成品疫苗的滴度分别为7.32、7.23、7.32、6.86、6.92、6.70 lg PFU/mL。结论乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗生产株SA14-14-2基因稳定,具有良好的一致性,为乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗的质量的稳定性提供了可靠依据。     

乙型脑炎病毒减毒中间株SA14-12-1-7基因组全序列的测定

本研究通过对乙型脑炎活疫苗减毒过程中间株SA14-12-1-7-12 -1-7株进行全序列测定和分析,进一步了解乙脑活疫苗减毒及其稳定性的分子机制.根据 已发表的SA14-12-1-7株及SA14-12-1-7株的序列,设计6对重叠引物,涵括整个乙脑病 毒的基因组,通过RT-PCR扩增出SA14-12-1-7-12-1-7株的各cDNA片段,分别克隆到pGEM -T载体,转化至TG1受体菌中,挑取阳性克隆进行鉴定后测序.结果表明SA14-12-1-7-12- 1-7株基因组全序列长10976个核苷酸,从96到10394为一个长开放读码框,编码3432个氨基 酸.与野毒株SA14-12-1-7和疫苗株SA14-12-1-7的核苷酸序列和氨基酸序列相比,同 源性均在99%以上,突变位点分散于各个区域,E区有5个位点与疫苗株一致而与野毒株不同 ,3个位点与野毒株一致而与疫苗株不同,推测与其容易产生回复突变、恢复毒力有关.此 外,NS3、NS5和3′NTR的几个位点可能与病毒毒力稳定性相关.综上所述,乙脑病毒减毒中 间株的基因组全序列基本类似于已发表的序列,若干突变位点影响病毒的弱毒性及毒力的稳定性.全序列的测定对于研究疫苗株的减毒机理具有重要意义.     

不同年份生产的乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗SA14-14-2基因稳定性研究

为了研究不同年份生产的乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗病毒E蛋白基因稳定性,从分子水平控制乙型脑炎减毒活疫苗质量,确保疫苗安全性,本研究分析了不同年份生产的乙脑活疫苗病毒E蛋白基因核苷酸序列及编码的氨基酸序列,并与该疫苗原始种子、主种子、工作种子、乙脑病毒强、弱毒株进行比较。结果显示不同年份生产的乙脑活疫苗病毒E蛋白基因核苷酸序列与其原始种子、主种子、工作种子和基因库中登录的乙脑病毒弱毒株SA14-14-2的相应序列完全一致,与乙脑病毒强毒株SA14的E蛋白氨基酸序列比较有9个位点氨基酸发生了改变。不同年份生产的乙脑活疫苗病毒E蛋白基因稳定性表明该疫苗质量稳定、安全。     

乙型脑炎病毒E264位点回复突变对疫苗安全性的影响

目的通过反向遗传学技术,构建乙型脑炎病毒减毒疫苗株SA14-14-2囊膜蛋白(envelope protein,E蛋白)第264位氨基酸的回复突变株,并分析该位点突变对疫苗株小鼠毒力的影响。方法通过融合PCR扩增含基因组第1 769核苷酸位点回复突变的基因片段(T→G),替换SA14-14-2相应区域,使得编码E264位点的氨基酸位点由SA14-14-2的组氨酸(H)回复突变成强毒株SA14的谷氨酰胺(Q),将该回复突变株命名为r JEV264(H→Q),通过测定蚀斑大小和一步生长曲线,分析r JEV264的增殖特征;通过测定该突变株的昆明种小鼠脑内神经毒力、皮下感染入脑能力、腹腔感染入脑能力,分析E264位点回复突变后对小鼠毒力的影响。结果成功构建了回复突变株r JEV264,该突变株蚀斑大小与SA14-14-2相似,在PHK细胞上的增殖特征与SA14-14-2没有明显差异。r JEV264对小鼠有可检测的脑内神经毒力,毒力为5.51 lg PFU/LD50,但无论是皮下注射还是腹腔注射,都没有使小鼠发病。结论在分子水平证明了E264位点是影响乙脑减毒活疫苗安全性的关键位点之一,E264位点的回复突变增强了SA14-14-2的小鼠脑内神经毒力,但没有增强小鼠神经侵袭力。     

不同代次毒种乙脑减毒活疫苗的滴度和安全性实验结果比较

为比较不同代次的乙脑毒种在疫苗制备过程中对疫苗质量的影响,特制备不同代次的工作种子SA14 14 2PHK7、PHK8、PHK9,检定合格后,分别用这几批毒种制备乙脑减毒活疫苗,检定和比较疫苗的滴度和各项安全性指标。实验表明SA14 -14 -2PHK7、PHK8和PHK9三个代次的乙脑毒种制备的乙脑疫苗平均滴度为 6. 43lgPFU/ml;乳鼠传代返祖试验均值为 1. 1lgLD50 /0. 03ml;致病力均为阴性。证实乙脑毒种SA14 -14 -2 10代以内的生物学特性是稳定的,对疫苗的影响无显著差异。10代以内的乙脑毒种可安全的用于疫苗生产。     

乙型脑炎病毒减毒中间株SA14—12—1—7基因组全序列的测定

本研究通过对乙型脑炎活疫苗减毒过程中间株SA14 12 1 7株进行全序列测定和分析 ,进一步了解乙脑活疫苗减毒及其稳定性的分子机制。根据已发表的SA14 14 2株及SA14 株的序列 ,设计 6对重叠引物 ,涵括整个乙脑病毒的基因组 ,通过RT PCR扩增出SA14 12 1 7株的各cDNA片段 ,分别克隆到pGEM T载体 ,转化至TG1受体菌中 ,挑取阳性克隆进行鉴定后测序。结果表明SA14 12 1 7株基因组全序列长 10 976个核苷酸 ,从 96到 10 394为一个长开放读码框 ,编码 3432个氨基酸。与野毒株SA14 和疫苗株SA14 14 2的核苷酸序列和氨基酸序列相比 ,同源性均在 99%以上 ,突变位点分散于各个区域 ,E区有 5个位点与疫苗株一致而与野毒株不同 ,3个位点与野毒株一致而与疫苗株不同 ,推测与其容易产生回复突变、恢复毒力有关。此外 ,NS3、NS5和 3′NTR的几个位点可能与病毒毒力稳定性相关。综上所述 ,乙脑病毒减毒中间株的基因组全序列基本类似于已发表的序列 ,若干突变位点影响病毒的弱毒性及毒力的稳定性。全序列的测定对于研究疫苗株的减毒机理具有重要意义     

乙型脑炎病毒野毒株及其不同株减毒株E蛋白基因序列比较

为了解乙脑减毒活疫苗株SA14 14 2的神经毒力减毒机制 ,用RT PCR方法分别扩增不同减毒程度毒株的E基因 ,克隆、测序 ,继而对各毒株序列进行比较。结果表明SA14 强毒株与SA14 12 1 7株间只有 3个氨基酸发生改变 (E 10 7,E 176 ,E 4 39) ,SA14 12 1 7与SA14 9 7和SA14 5 3株间有另 3个氨基酸发生改变 (E 138,E 2 79,E 315 )。SA14 9 7株与SA14 5 3株只有一个核苷酸NT 4 0 5不同 ,但未引起氨基酸改变。SA14 14 2疫苗株除保留SA14 12 1 7和SA14 9 7所改变的 6个氨基酸外 ,另有 2个氨基酸发生了改变 (E 177,E 2 6 4 ) ,共计在E区共发生 8个氨基酸的替代。SA14 12 1 7株的低神经毒力很不稳定而其余各株的弱毒特征很稳定。因此 ,E 176 (Ile→Val) ,E 4 39(Lys→Arg)和E 10 7(Leu→Phe)可能与神经外和神经内毒力减弱有关。E 138(Gul→Lys) ,E 315 (Ala→Val)和E 2 79(Lys→Met)的突变可能与神经毒力的减弱和稳定性相关     

乙脑/登革4型嵌合病毒的构建及其小鼠神经毒力测定

目的构建以乙型脑炎病毒(Japanese encephalitis virus,JEV)疫苗株SA14-14-2为基因骨架的乙脑/登革4型嵌合病毒,并分析该嵌合病毒对小鼠的神经毒力。方法通过重叠PCR方法扩增含有登革病毒4型(DENV-4)H241株pr ME基因序列和乙型脑炎病毒疫苗株SA14-14-2的NS1蛋白前177个核苷酸的融合片段,用Nar I和Bgl II双酶切后替换乙型脑炎病毒疫苗株SA14-14-2全长克隆中的相应区域,构建成乙脑/登革4型嵌合全长克隆,通过体外转录和转染BHK21细胞获得嵌合病毒(JEV/DENV-4 chimeric virus,JD4)。通过测定嵌合病毒JD4和2个母本株JEV SA14-14-2株及DENV-4 H241株蚀斑大小、小鼠脑内神经毒力和皮下感染入脑能力、乳鼠脑内神经毒力,比较JD4和母本株之间的差异。通过将JD4在原代地鼠肾(primary hamster kidney,PHK)细胞传代30次,分析传代后嵌合病毒的神经毒力是否减弱及减弱的程度。结果测序结果表明,构建的嵌合病毒JD4基因组序列和预期一致,没有产生新的位点突变。JD4蚀斑较SA14-14-2明显偏小,但和DENV-4 H241株没有明显区别。JD4对3周龄小鼠具有较强的脑内神经毒力,和母本株DENV-4 H241没有差异,对小鼠没有神经侵袭力。乳鼠实验结果表明,嵌合病毒JD4脑内神经毒力虽然略低于母本株DENV-4 H241,但两者之间没有明显差异,都明显强于乙脑疫苗株SA14-14-2。在PHK细胞传代30次后,小鼠神经毒力虽然有所减低,但并不明显。结论成功构建了嵌合病毒JD4,通过测定并比较JD4与母本株的蚀斑特征、小鼠及乳鼠神经毒力等试验,为分析登革疫苗候选株安全性研究奠定了基础。     

A Chimeric Dengue Virus Vaccine using Japanese Encephalitis Virus Vaccine Strain SA14-14-2 as Backbone Is Immunogenic and Protective against Either Parental Virus in Mice and Nonhuman Primates

The development of a safe and efficient dengue vaccine represents a global challenge in public health. Chimeric dengue viruses (DENV) based on an attenuated flavivirus have been well developed as vaccine candidates by using reverse genetics. In this study, based on the full-length infectious cDNA clone of the well-known Japanese encephalitis virus live vaccine strain SA14-14-2 as a backbone, a novel chimeric dengue virus (named ChinDENV) was rationally designed and constructed by replacement with the premembrane and envelope genes of dengue 2 virus. The recovered chimeric virus showed growth and plaque properties similar to those of the parental DENV in mammalian and mosquito cells. ChinDENV was highly attenuated in mice, and no viremia was induced in rhesus monkeys upon subcutaneous inoculation. ChinDENV retained its genetic stability and attenuation phenotype after serial 15 passages in cultured cells. A single immunization with various doses of ChinDENV elicited strong neutralizing antibodies in a dose-dependent manner. When vaccinated monkeys were challenged with wild-type DENV, all animals except one that received the lower dose were protected against the development of viremia. Furthermore, immunization with ChinDENV conferred efficient cross protection against lethal JEV challenge in mice in association with robust cellular immunity induced by the replicating nonstructural proteins. Taken together, the results of this preclinical study well demonstrate the great potential of ChinDENV for further development as a dengue vaccine candidate, and this kind of chimeric flavivirus based on JE vaccine virus represents a powerful tool to deliver foreign antigens.     

Yellow fever/Japanese encephalitis chimeric viruses: construction and biological properties

A system has been developed for generating chimeric yellow fever/Japanese encephalitis (YF/JE) viruses from cDNA templates encoding the structural proteins prM and E of JE virus within the backbone of a molecular clone of the YF17D strain. Chimeric viruses incorporating the proteins of two JE strains, SA14-14-2 (human vaccine strain) and JE Nakayama (JE-N [virulent mouse brain-passaged strain]), were studied in cell culture and laboratory mice. The JE envelope protein (E) retained antigenic and biological properties when expressed with its prM protein together with the YF capsid; however, viable chimeric viruses incorporating the entire JE structural region (C-prM-E) could not be obtained. YF/JE(prM-E) chimeric viruses grew efficiently in cells of vertebrate or mosquito origin compared to the parental viruses. The YF/JE SA14-14-2 virus was unable to kill young adult mice by intracerebral challenge, even at doses of 10(6) PFU. In contrast, the YF/JE-N virus was neurovirulent, but the phenotype resembled parental YF virus rather than JE-N. Ten predicted amino acid differences distinguish the JE E proteins of the two chimeric viruses, therefore implicating one or more residues as virus-specific determinants of mouse neurovirulence in this chimeric system. This study indicates the feasibility of expressing protective antigens of JE virus in the context of a live, attenuated flavivirus vaccine strain (YF17D) and also establishes a genetic system for investigating the molecular basis for neurovirulence determinants encoded within the JE E protein.     

Single Mutation in the Flavivirus Envelope Protein Hinge Region Increases Neurovirulence for Mice and Monkeys but Decreases Viscerotropism for Monkeys: Relevance to Development and Safety Testing of Live, Attenuated Vaccines

A chimeric yellow fever (YF) virus/Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus vaccine (ChimeriVax-JE) was constructed by insertion of the prM-E genes from the attenuated JE virus SA14-14-2 vaccine strain into a full-length cDNA clone of YF 17D virus. Passage in fetal rhesus lung (FRhL) cells led to the emergence of a small-plaque virus containing a single Met-->Lys amino acid mutation at E279, reverting this residue from the SA14-14-2 to the wild-type amino acid. A similar virus was also constructed by site-directed mutagenesis (J. Arroyo, F. Guirakhoo, S. Fenner, Z.-X. Zhang, T. P. Monath, and T. J. Chambers, J. Virol. 75:934-942, 2001). The E279 mutation is located in a beta-sheet in the hinge region of the E protein that is responsible for a pH-dependent conformational change during virus penetration from the endosome into the cytoplasm of the infected cell. In independent transfection-passage studies with FRhL or Vero cells, mutations appeared most frequently in hinge 4 (bounded by amino acids E266 to E284), reflecting genomic instability in this functionally important region. The E279 reversion caused a significant increase in neurovirulence as determined by the 50% lethal dose and survival distribution in suckling mice and by histopathology in rhesus monkeys. Based on sensitivity and comparability of results with those for monkeys, the suckling mouse is an appropriate host for safety testing of flavivirus vaccine candidates for neurotropism. After intracerebral inoculation, the E279 Lys virus was restricted with respect to extraneural replication in monkeys, as viremia and antibody levels (markers of viscerotropism) were significantly reduced compared to those for the E279 Met virus. These results are consistent with the observation that empirically derived vaccines developed by mouse brain passage of dengue and YF viruses have increased neurovirulence for mice but reduced viscerotropism for humans.     

Biological and genetic properties of SA14-14-2, a live-attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine that is currently available for humans

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, is a major cause of acute encephalitis, a disease of significance for global public health. In the absence of antiviral therapy to treat JEV infection, vaccination is the most effective method of preventing the disease. In JE-endemic areas, the most widely used vaccine to date is SA(14)-14-2, a live-attenuated virus derived from its virulent parent SA(14). In this study, we describe the biological properties of SA(14)-14-2, both in vitro and in vivo, and report the genetic characteristics of its genomic RNA. In BHK-21 (hamster kidney) cells, SA(14)-14-2 displayed a slight delay in plaque formation and growth kinetics when compared to a virulent JEV strain, CNU/LP2, with no decrease in maximum virus production. The delay in viral growth was also observed in two other cell lines, SH-SY5Y (human neuroblastoma) and C6/36 (mosquito larva), which are potentially relevant to JEV pathogenesis and transmission. In 3-week-old ICR mice, SA(14)-14-2 did not cause any symptoms or death after either intracerebral or peripheral inoculation with a maximum dose of up to 1.5×10(3) plaque-forming units (PFU) per mouse. The SA(14)-14-2 genome consisted of 10977 nucleotides, one nucleotide longer than all the previously reported genomes of SA(14)-14-2, SA(14) and two other SA(14)-derived attenuated viruses. This difference was due to an insertion of one G nucleotide at position 10701 in the 3 noncoding region. Also, we noted a significant number of nucleotide and/or amino acid substitutions throughout the genome of SA(14)-14-2, except for the prM protein-coding region, that differed from SA(14) and/or the other two attenuated viruses. Our results, together with others', provide a foundation not only for the study of JEV virulence but also for the development of new and improved vaccines for JEV.     

Chimeric yellow fever virus 17D-Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine: dose-response effectiveness and extended safety testing in rhesus monkeys

ChimeriVax-JE is a live, attenuated recombinant virus prepared by replacing the genes encoding two structural proteins (prM and E) of yellow fever 17D virus with the corresponding genes of an attenuated strain of Japanese encephalitis virus (JE), SA14-14-2 (T. J. Chambers et al., J. Virol. 73:3095-3101, 1999). Since the prM and E proteins contain antigens conferring protective humoral and cellular immunity, the immune response to vaccination is directed principally at JE. The prM-E genome sequence of the ChimeriVax-JE in diploid fetal rhesus lung cells (FRhL, a substrate acceptable for human vaccines) was identical to that of JE SA14-14-2 vaccine and differed from sequences of virulent wild-type strains (SA14 and Nakayama) at six amino acid residues in the envelope gene (E107, E138, E176, E279, E315, and E439). ChimeriVax-JE was fully attenuated for weaned mice inoculated by the intracerebral (i.c.) route, whereas commercial yellow fever 17D vaccine (YF-Vax) caused lethal encephalitis with a 50% lethal dose of 1.67 log(10) PFU. Groups of four rhesus monkeys were inoculated by the subcutaneous route with 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5. 0 log(10) PFU of ChimeriVax-JE. All 16 monkeys developed low viremias (mean peak viremia, 1.7 to 2.1 log(10) PFU/ml; mean duration, 1.8 to 2.3 days). Neutralizing antibodies appeared between days 6 and 10; by day 30, neutralizing antibody responses were similar across dose groups. Neutralizing antibody titers to the homologous (vaccine) strain were higher than to the heterologous wild-type JE strains. All immunized monkeys and sham-immunized controls were challenged i.c. on day 54 with 5.2 log(10) PFU of wild-type JE. None of the immunized monkeys developed viremia or illness and had mild residual brain lesions, whereas controls developed viremia, clinical encephalitis, and severe histopathologic lesions. Immunized monkeys developed significant (>/=4-fold) increases in serum and cerebrospinal fluid neutralizing antibodies after i.c. challenge. In a standardized test for neurovirulence, ChimeriVax-JE and YF-Vax were compared in groups of 10 monkeys inoculated i.c. and analyzed histopathologically on day 30. Lesion scores in brains and spinal cord were significantly higher for monkeys inoculated with YF-Vax. ChimeriVax-JE meets preclinical safety and efficacy requirements for a human vaccine; it appears safer than yellow fever 17D vaccine but has a similar profile of immunogenicity and protective efficacy.     

Genetically engineered live attenuated influenza A virus vaccine candidates.

We have generated new influenza A virus live attenuated vaccine candidates by site-directed mutagenesis and reverse genetics. By mutating specific amino acids in the PB2 polymerase subunit, two temperature-sensitive (ts) attenuated viruses were obtained. Both candidates have 38 degrees C shutoff temperatures in MDCK cells, are attenuated in the respiratory tracts of mice and ferrets, and have very low reactogenicity in ferrets. Infection of mice or ferrets with either mutant conferred significant protection from challenge with the homologous wild-type virus. Three tests for genetic stability were used to assess the propensity for reversion to virulence: 14 days of replication in nude mice, growth at 37 degrees C in tissue culture, and serial passage in ferrets. One candidate, which contains mutations intended to reduce the ability of PB2 to bind to cap structures, was stable in all three assays, whereas the second candidate, which contains mutations found only in other ts strains of influenza virus, lost its ts phenotype in the last two assays. This approach has therefore enabled the creation of live attenuated influenza A virus vaccine candidates suitable for human testing.     

Gene-specific contributions to mumps virus neurovirulence and neuroattenuation

Mumps virus (MuV) is highly neurotropic and was the leading cause of aseptic meningitis in the Western Hemisphere prior to widespread use of live attenuated MuV vaccines. Due to the absence of markers of virus neuroattenuation and neurovirulence, ensuring mumps vaccine safety has proven problematic, as demonstrated by the occurrence of aseptic meningitis in recipients of certain vaccine strains. Here we examined the genetic basis of MuV neuroattenuation and neurovirulence by generating a series of recombinant viruses consisting of combinations of genes derived from a cDNA clone of the neurovirulent wild-type 88-1961 strain (r88) and from a cDNA clone of the highly attenuated Jeryl Lynn vaccine strain (rJL). Testing of these viruses in rats demonstrated the ability of several individual rJL genes and gene combinations to significantly neuroattenuate r88, with the greatest effect imparted by the rJL nucleoprotein/matrix protein combination. Interestingly, no tested combination of r88 genes, including the nucleoprotein/matrix protein combination, was able to convert rJL into a highly neurovirulent virus, highlighting mechanistic differences between processes involved in neuroattenuation and neurovirulence.