A genetic strategy generating wheat with very high amylose content

Resistant starch (RS), a type of dietary fibre, plays an important role in human health; however, the content of RS in most modern processed starchy foods is low. Cereal starch, when structurally manipulated through a modified starch biosynthetic pathway to greatly increase the amylose content, could be an important food source of RS. Transgenic studies have previously revealed the requirement of simultaneous down‐regulation of two starch branching enzyme (SBE) II isoforms both located on the long arm of chromosome 2, namely SBEIIa and SBEIIb, to elevate the amylose content in wheat from ~25% to ~75%. The current study revealed close proximity of genes encoding SBEIIa and SBEIIb isoforms in wheat with a genetic distance of 0.5 cM on chromosome 2B. A series of deletion and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loss of function alleles in SBEIIa, SBEIIb or both was isolated from two different wheat populations. A breeding strategy to combine deletions and SNPs generated wheat genotypes with altered expression levels of SBEIIa and SBEIIb, elevating the amylose content to an unprecedented ~85%, with a marked concomitant increase in RS content. Biochemical assays were used to confirm the complete absence in the grain of expression of SBEIIa from all three genomes in combination with the absence of SBEIIb from one of the genomes.     

Modification of starch metabolism in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana increases plant biomass and triples oilseed production

We have identified a novel means to achieve substantially increased vegetative biomass and oilseed production in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Endogenous isoforms of starch branching enzyme (SBE) were substituted by either one of the endosperm‐expressed maize (Zea mays L.) branching isozymes, ZmSBEI or ZmSBEIIb. Transformants were compared with the starch‐free background and with the wild‐type plants. Each of the maize‐derived SBEs restored starch biosynthesis but both morphology and structure of starch particles were altered. Altered starch metabolism in the transformants is associated with enhanced biomass formation and more‐than‐trebled oilseed production while maintaining seed oil quality. Enhanced oilseed production is primarily due to an increased number of siliques per plant whereas oil content and seed number per silique are essentially unchanged or even modestly decreased. Introduction of cereal starch branching isozymes into oilseed plants represents a potentially useful strategy to increase biomass and oilseed production in related crops and manipulate the structure and properties of leaf starch.     

Functional interactions between heterologously expressed starch-branching enzymes of maize and the glycogen synthases of Brewer's yeast

Starch-branching enzymes (SBEs) catalyze the formation of alpha(1-->6) glycoside bonds in glucan polymers, thus, affecting the structure of amylopectin and starch granules. Two distinct classes of SBE are generally conserved in higher plants, although the specific role(s) of each isoform in determination of starch structure is not clearly understood. This study used a heterologous in vivo system to isolate the function of each of the three known SBE isoforms of maize (Zea mays) away from the other plant enzymes involved in starch biosynthesis. The ascomycete Brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) was employed as the host species. All possible combinations of maize SBEs were expressed in the absence of the endogenous glucan-branching enzyme. Each maize SBE was functional in yeast cells, although SBEI had a significant effect only if SBEIIa and SBEIIb also were present. SBEI by itself did not support glucan accumulation, whereas SBEIIa and SBEIIb both functioned along with the native glycogen synthases (GSs) to produce significant quantities of alpha-glucan polymers. SBEIIa was phenotypically dominant to SBEIIb in terms of glucan structure. The specific branching enzyme present had a significant effect on the molecular weight of the product. From these data we suggest that SBEs and GSs work in a cyclically interdependent fashion, such that SBE action is needed for optimal GS activity; and GS, in turn, influences the further effects of SBE. Also, SBEIIa and SBEIIb appear to act before SBEI during polymer assembly in this heterologous system.     

Protein phosphorylation in amyloplasts regulates starch branching enzyme activity and protein-protein interactions

Protein phosphorylation in amyloplasts and chloroplasts of Triticum aestivum (wheat) was investigated after the incubation of intact plastids with gamma-(32)P-ATP. Among the soluble phosphoproteins detected in plastids, three forms of starch branching enzyme (SBE) were phosphorylated in amyloplasts (SBEI, SBEIIa, and SBEIIb), and both forms of SBE in chloroplasts (SBEI and SBEIIa) were shown to be phosphorylated after sequencing of the immunoprecipitated (32)P-labeled phosphoproteins using quadrupole-orthogonal acceleration time of flight mass spectrometry. Phosphoamino acid analysis of the phosphorylated SBE forms indicated that the proteins are all phosphorylated on Ser residues. Analysis of starch granule-associated phosphoproteins after incubation of intact amyloplasts with gamma-(32)P-ATP indicated that the granule-associated forms of SBEII and two granule-associated forms of starch synthase (SS) are phosphorylated, including SSIIa. Measurement of SBE activity in amyloplasts and chloroplasts showed that phosphorylation activated SBEIIa (and SBEIIb in amyloplasts), whereas dephosphorylation using alkaline phosphatase reduced the catalytic activity of both enzymes. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation had no effect on the measurable activity of SBEI in amyloplasts and chloroplasts, and the activities of both granule-bound forms of SBEII in amyloplasts were unaffected by dephosphorylation. Immunoprecipitation experiments using peptide-specific anti-SBE antibodies showed that SBEIIb and starch phosphorylase each coimmunoprecipitated with SBEI in a phosphorylation-dependent manner, suggesting that these enzymes may form protein complexes within the amyloplast in vivo. Conversely, dephosphorylation of immunoprecipitated protein complex led to its disassembly. This article reports direct evidence that enzymes of starch metabolism (amylopectin synthesis) are regulated by protein phosphorylation and indicate a wider role for protein phosphorylation and protein-protein interactions in the control of starch anabolism and catabolism.     

Impact of down-regulation of starch branching enzyme IIb in rice by artificial microRNA- and hairpin RNA-mediated RNA silencing

The inactivation of starch branching IIb (SBEIIb) in rice is traditionally associated with elevated apparent amylose content, increased peak gelatinization temperature, and a decreased proportion of short amylopectin branches. To elucidate further the structural and functional role of this enzyme, the phenotypic effects of down-regulating SBEIIb expression in rice endosperm were characterized by artificial microRNA (amiRNA) and hairpin RNA (hp-RNA) gene silencing. The results showed that RNA silencing of SBEIIb expression in rice grains did not affect the expression of other major isoforms of starch branching enzymes or starch synthases. Structural analyses of debranched starch showed that the doubling of apparent amylose content was not due to an increase in the relative proportion of amylose chains but instead was due to significantly elevated levels of long amylopectin and intermediate chains. Rices altered by the amiRNA technique produced a more extreme starch phenotype than those modified using the hp-RNA technique, with a greater increase in the proportion of long amylopectin and intermediate chains. The more pronounced starch structural modifications produced in the amiRNA lines led to more severe alterations in starch granule morphology and crystallinity as well as digestibility of freshly cooked grains. The potential role of attenuating SBEIIb expression in generating starch with elevated levels of resistant starch and lower glycaemic index is discussed.     

RNAi沉默淀粉分支酶基因SBEI对玉米直链淀粉合成的影响

淀粉分支酶(SBE)是淀粉合成的限速酶。为了研究SBEI沉默对直链淀粉合成的影响, 克隆了玉米(Zea mays)淀粉分支酶SBEI基因片段, 构建了SBEI的RNAi表达载体pBAC418, 用基因枪将其导入玉米自交系幼胚愈伤组织, 经木糖筛选获得了7株转化再生植株。利用FAD2 intron和xylA基因探针对T₀代再生玉米植株进行DNA dot blot和PCR-Southern检测, 证实5株为阳性植株, 其中4株正常结实。SBEI基因沉默对阳性再生玉米株系籽粒的含油量没有显著影响; 蛋白质含量显著高于受体对照; 总淀粉含量与对照相比无显著差异, 转基因株系直链淀粉含量平均提高了9.8%。     

Mutation of the maize sbe1a and ae genes alters morphology and physical behavior of wx-type endosperm starch granules

In maize, three isoforms of starch-branching enzyme, SBEI, SBEIIa, and SBEIIb, are encoded by the Sbe1a, Sbe2a, and Amylose extender (Ae) genes, respectively. The objective of this research was to explore the effects of null mutations in the Sbe1a and Ae genes alone and in combination in wx background on kernel characteristics and on the morphology and physical behavior of endosperm starch granules. Differences in kernel morphology and weight, starch accumulation, starch granule size and size distribution, starch microstructure, and thermal properties were observed between the ae wx and sbe1a ae wx plants but not between the sbe1a wx mutants when compared to wx. Starch from sbe1a ae wx plants exhibited a larger granule size with a wider gelatinization temperature range and a lower endotherm enthalpy than ae wx. Microscopy shows weaker iodine staining in sbe1a ae wx starch granules. X-ray diffraction revealed A-type crystallinity in wx and sbe1a wx starches and B-type in sbe1a ae wx and ae wx. This study suggests that, while the SBEIIb isoform plays a dominant role in maize endosperm starch synthesis, SBEI also plays a role, which is only observable in the presence of the ae mutation.     

In vitro and in vivo digestion of octenyl succinic starch

This study aimed to understand effects of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modification of normal corn (NCS) and high-amylose corn (HA7) starch on their enzymatic hydrolysis rates. After modification with 3% and 10% OSA, resistant starch (RS) contents of the cooked OS-NCS increased from 0.8% of the control starch to 6.8% and 13.2% (Englyst Method), respectively, whereas that of the cooked OS-HA7 decreased from 24.1% to 23.7% and 20.9%, respectively. When the cooked NCS, HA7 and OS (10%)-HA7 were used to prepare diets for rats at 55% (w/w) starch, RS contents of the diets were 1.1%, 13.2% and 14.6%, respectively. After feeding to the rats, 20.2–31.1% of the starch in the OS (10%)-HA7-diet was not utilized in vivo and was found in rat feces, which was substantially larger than that of the HA7-diet (≤4.9%) and NCS-diet (≤0.2%). The body weights of the rats, however, remained similar between different groups.     

Resistant glutarate starch from adlay: Preparation and properties

Reaction conditions were optimized to increase the content of resistant starch in adlay starch using esterification with glutaric acid, and the physicochemical properties of the prepared glutarate starches were investigated. Different amounts of glutaric acid (0.1–0.5 g/g starch, dry weight basis) were reacted with adlay starch at various temperatures (70–130 °C) and reaction times (3–9 h). The resistant starch levels increased with increased glutaric acid content, reaction temperature, and reaction time. The color difference was mainly affected by reaction time. The highest resistant starch content (RS 66%) was obtained using conditions of 0.4 g glutaric acid/g starch, 115 °C, and 7.5 h, with a color difference of 10.24. After digestion with α-amylase and amyloglucosidase, the water-soluble fraction of glutarate starch had more oligosaccharides than high-amylose maize starch (RS 43%). FT-IR and solid-state NMR detected carbonyl groups in the glutarate starch, indicating the formation of cross-linkages through esterification. The granular structure of the glutarate starches was not destroyed and they retained birefringence. After heating with an excess of water, the granules kept their shape but lost their birefringence. The glutarate starches had low solubility in both cold and hot water, and the resistant starch contents were unchanged after heating due to the restriction of swelling by cross-linking. The glutarate starches had a similar chain-length distribution to raw starch, indicating that acid hydrolysis took place at branching points in the amorphous region. Furthermore, the glutarate starches possessed a weaker crystalline region, more diverse double helical chains, and lower enthalpy than raw starch.     

Resistant starch reduces colonic and urinary p-cresol in rats fed a tyrosine-supplemented diet,whereas konjac mannan does not

The effect of resistant starch (RS) and konjac mannan (KM) to maintain and improve the large intestinal environment was compared. Wistar SPF rats were fed the following diets for 4 weeks: negative control diet (C diet), tyrosine-supplemented positive control diet (T diet), and luminacoid supplemented diets containing either high-molecular konjac mannan A (KMAT diet), low-molecular konjac mannan B (KMBT diet), high-amylose cornstarch (HAST diet), or heat-moisture-treated starch (HMTST diet). The luminacoid-fed group had an increased content of short-chain fatty acids in the cecum. HAS caused a significant decrease in p-cresol content in the cecum, whereas KM did not. Urinary p-cresol was reduced in the HAST group compared with the T group, but not the KM fed groups. Deterioration in the large intestinal environment was only improved completely in the HAST and HMTST groups, suggesting that RS is considerably more effective than KM in maintaining the large intestinal environment.     

作物淀粉生物合成与转基因修饰研究进展

淀粉是高等植物中碳水化合物的主要贮藏形式 ,也是粮食作物产品的最主要成分。淀粉虽然都由直链淀粉和枝链淀粉组成 ,但在不同作物中两者的比例和枝链淀粉结构的存在很大差异。现已明确 ,直链淀粉是在颗粒结合淀粉合成酶 (granule boundstarchsynthase,GBSS)催化下合成的 ,而枝链淀粉是四种酶共同作用的结果 ,它们分别是腺嘌呤 -葡萄糖焦磷酸化酶 (ADP glucosepyrophosphorylase ,AGP) ,可溶性淀粉合成酶 (solublestarchsynthase ,SSS) ,淀粉分枝酶 (starchbranchingenzyme ,SBE)和脱分枝酶 (starchdebranchingenzyme ,DBE)。一方面 ,在不同作物中 ,这些酶本身存在多种形式 ,如在玉米胚乳中 ,AGP有大亚基和小亚基之分 ,SBE又可分BE1,BEIIa ,BEIIb 3种 ,SSS也可分为SSI和SSIII(或SSIIa)两种 ,而DBE也有异淀粉酶 (isoamylase)和限制性糊精酶 (pullu lanase)两种。另一方面 ,控制特定酶的基因 ,在不同作物甚至在同一种作物的不同品种中也可能存在不同的复等位基因 ,如籼稻和粳稻的GBSS分别由蜡质基因Wxa 和Wxb 控制 ,两者编码的GBSS活性差异显著。此外 ,环境条件也可通过影响基因的转录使酶的含量或催化性能发生变化。迄今 ,国内外已获得多种马铃薯和水稻的转基因材料 ,对淀粉合成进行修饰 ,试图培育优质品     

Lipids in developing and mature rice grain

The neutral fraction of nonstarch lipids in developing brown rice (Oryza sativa L., cv IR42) was accumulated up to 16 days after flowering (DAF), but phospholipids and glycolipids increased only up to 8 DAF. Fatty acids accumulated in nonstarch lipids until 12 DAF. However, the proportion of linolenic acid in the lipid fraction decreased and that of oleic acid increased during this period. Accumulation of fat-by-hydrolysis in the brown rice occurred until 20 DAF and followed closely that of starch. The proportion of linolenic acid decreased and that of linoleic acid increased until 16 DAF. The fatty acid composition of fat-by-hydrolysis and starch lipids were identical and fat-by-hydrolysis accounted for 48% by weight of starch lipids. Nonstarch lipids were mainly composed of triglycerides and were located in the bran and embryo of mature brown rice. Starch lipids were mainly composed of lysophosphatidyl choline, free fatty acids and lysophosphatidyl ethanolamine, and were located in the endosperm.     

Effects of the activities of key enzymes involved in starch biosynthesis on the fine structure of amylopectin in developing rice (Oryza sativa L.) endosperms

The dynamic changes of the activities of enzymes involving in starch biosynthesis, including ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), soluble starch synthases (SSS), starch branching enzyme (SBE) and starch debranching enzymes (DBE) were studied, and changes of fine structure of amy- lopectin were characterized by isoamylase treatment during rice grain development, using trans anti-waxy gene rice plants. The relationships between the activities of those key enzymes were also analyzed. The amylose synthesis was significantly inhibited in transgenic Wanjing 9522, but the total starch content and final grain weight were less affected as compared with those of non-transgenic Wanjing 9522 rice cultivar. Analyses on the changes of activities of enzymes involving in starch bio- synthesis showed that different enzyme activities were expressed differently during rice endosperm development. Soluble starch synthase is relatively highly expressed in earlier stage of endosperm de- velopment, whilst maximal expression of granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS) occurred in mid-stage of endosperm development. No obvious differences in changes of the activities of AGPase and SBE between two rice cultivars investigated, except the DBEs. Distribution patterns of branches of amy- lopectin changed continually during the development of rice grains and varied between two rice culti- vars. It was suggested that amylopectin synthesis be prior to the synthesis of amylose and different enzymes have different roles in controlling syntheses of branches of amylopectin.     

复合调控Wx与SBE3基因对水稻籽粒直链淀粉含量的影响

颗粒淀粉合成酶（GBSS）和淀粉分支酶3（SBE3）是淀粉合成过程中的两个关键酶,这两个酶主要由耽和SBE3两个基因分别控制,它们的表达量直接影响直链淀粉和支链淀粉的含量比例。为了探讨水稻淀粉关键酶基因耽过量与SBE3干涉复合表达对直链淀粉含量的影响,构建了Wx过量表达与SBE3干涉结合的多基因表达载体,并通过农杆菌介导的方法将其导入日本晴水稻中。经过PCR检测分析获得了65株转基因阳性植株,半定量RT—PCR检测表明转基因株系中Wx基因表达量明显增加,而SBE3基因表达量显著减少。转基因株系籽粒透明度明显降低,直链淀粉含量比野生型的平均高45％,但是千粒重变化不大,与野生型相当。遗传分析表明这些转基因株系多数可稳定遗传。     

转反义Wx基因水稻颖果中与淀粉合成和积累相关酶活性的变化

将反义Wx基因转入水稻,导致Wx蛋白不同程度减少,颖果中的直链淀粉含量不同程度下降,总淀粉含量显著降低,直链淀粉与总淀粉的比值极显著降低。在水稻颖果发育过程中,ADPG-PPase、GBSS、SSS和SBE的活性在灌浆前期迅速升高,达最大值后很快下降,在灌浆中后期下降趋缓。Wx蛋白减少后的转基因水稻颖果中的GBSS活性明显下降,下降幅度与直链淀粉含量相一致,而且活性高峰期比其亲本有所提前。转基因水稻颖果中ADPG-PPase和SSS的活性在颖果发育的前中期,SBE则在中后期高于相应的亲本。     

Allelic variants of the amylose extender mutation of maize demonstrate phenotypic variation in starch structure resulting from modified protein-protein interactions

Amylose extender (ae(-)) starches characteristically have modified starch granule morphology resulting from amylopectin with reduced branch frequency and longer glucan chains in clusters, caused by the loss of activity of the major starch branching enzyme (SBE), which in maize endosperm is SBEIIb. A recent study with ae(-) maize lacking the SBEIIb protein (termed ae1.1 herein) showed that novel protein-protein interactions between enzymes of starch biosynthesis in the amyloplast could explain the starch phenotype of the ae1.1 mutant. The present study examined an allelic variant of the ae(-) mutation, ae1.2, which expresses a catalytically inactive form of SBEIIb. The catalytically inactive SBEIIb in ae1.2 lacks a 28 amino acid peptide (Val272-Pro299) and is unable to bind to amylopectin. Analysis of starch from ae1.2 revealed altered granule morphology and physicochemical characteristics distinct from those of the ae1.1 mutant as well as the wild-type, including altered apparent amylose content and gelatinization properties. Starch from ae1.2 had fewer intermediate length glucan chains (degree of polymerization 16-20) than ae1.1. Biochemical analysis of ae1.2 showed that there were differences in the organization and assembly of protein complexes of starch biosynthetic enzymes in comparison with ae1.1 (and wild-type) amyloplasts, which were also reflected in the composition of starch granule-bound proteins. The formation of stromal protein complexes in the wild-type and ae1.2 was strongly enhanced by ATP, and broken by phosphatase treatment, indicating a role for protein phosphorylation in their assembly. Labelling experiments with [γ-(32)P]ATP showed that the inactive form of SBEIIb in ae1.2 was phosphorylated, both in the monomeric form and in association with starch synthase isoforms. Although the inactive SBEIIb was unable to bind starch directly, it was strongly associated with the starch granule, reinforcing the conclusion that its presence in the granules is a result of physical association with other enzymes of starch synthesis. In addition, an Mn(2+)-based affinity ligand, specific for phosphoproteins, was used to show that the granule-bound forms of SBEIIb in the wild-type and ae1.2 were phosphorylated, as was the granule-bound form of SBEI found in ae1.2 starch. The data strongly support the hypothesis that the complement of heteromeric complexes of proteins involved in amylopectin synthesis contributes to the fine structure and architecture of the starch granule.     

Gene expression of the biosynthetic enzymes and biosynthesis of starch during Rice Grain development

Amylose and amylopectin are determinants of the physicochemical properties for starch and grain quality in rice. Their biosynthesis is catalyzed by the interplay of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS), soluble starch synthase (SSS), a starch branching enzyme (SBE), and a starch debranching enzyme (SDE). In this study, the genes for these enzymes were highly expressed 7 to 28 days after flowering during grain development, and their expression closely matched increases in both starch content and grain weight Among all the tested cultivars, amylose contents in the rice grains remained essentially constant throughout their development The AGPase gene was highly expressed in the high-yield cultivars of both glutinous and non-glutinous rice. The SSS gene was actively expressed when mature GBSS mRNA decreased. Genes responsible for amylopectin biosynthesis were simultaneously expressed in the late stage of grain development. We have now demonstrated that the expression patterns of starch biosynthetic genes differ between glutinous and non-glutinous rice, and between Tongil (a Japonica/ Indica hybrid) and Japonica types.