On the importance of incorporating forest edge deposition for evaluating exceedance of critical pollutant loads

The concept of critical load (CL) was defined to express the tolerance of natural and semi‐natural habitats for anthropogenic air pollution. Correct evaluation of the exceedance of critical loads is fundamental for the long‐term protection of ecosystems by limiting emissions of potential acidifying and eutrophying pollutants. For forest ecosystems, the exceedance of critical loads is often calculated using deposition data measured in the forest interior. However, several studies report forest edges acting as ‘hotspots’ of acidifying and nitrogen deposition, showing up to fourfold increases in atmospheric deposition compared to the forest interior. This paper estimates the relevance of considering the higher deposition load in forest edges for calculating exceedance of critical loads for nitrogen and potential acidifying deposition. If measures to control and reduce atmospheric deposition are based on mean deposition fluxes within forest stands, deposition reductions will not be enough for preventing adverse effects. In fact, emission reductions should be adjusted to deposition values at the forest edge, since these zones are most threatened. We thus conclude that there is an urgent need to reconsider the calculation of exceedance of critical loads, taking into account edge enhancement of deposition. This is an issue of high relevance, particularly in highly fragmented regions, such as Flanders (Belgium).     

森林土壤氮素转换及其对氮沉降的响应

近几十年人类活动向大气中排放的含氮化合物激增 ,并引起大气氮沉降也成比例增加。目前 ,氮沉降的增加使一些森林生态系统结构和功能发生改变 ,甚至衰退。近 2 0 a欧洲和北美有关氮沉降及其对森林生态系统的影响方面的研究较多 ,而我国少有涉及。森林土壤氮素转换是森林生态系统氮素循环的一个重要的组成部分 ,而矿化、硝化和反硝化作用是其核心过程 ,氮沉降作为驱动因子势必改变森林土壤氮素转换速度、方向和通量。根据国外近 2 0 a有关研究 ,首先介绍了森林土壤氮素转换过程和强度 ,论述森林土壤氮素在生态系统氮素循环中的作用 ,然后在此基础上 ,介绍了氮沉降对森林土壤氮素循环的研究途径 ,探讨了氮沉降对森林土壤氮素矿化、硝化和反硝化作用的影响及其机理     

Developing an indicator-modelling approach to forecast changes in nitrogen critical load exceedance across Europe arising from agricultural reform

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition above the critical load causes eutrophication with adverse impacts on biodiversity. Average Accumulated critical load Exceedance (AAE) is a measure of the amount of critical load exceedance and the area of habitat which is affected, and has been adopted in Europe as a pressure indicator for biodiversity. In Europe, AAE is calculated by the Coordination Centre for Effects (CCE) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe based on modelled nitrogen deposition and country-level reporting of critical load thresholds and ecosystem area. Due to differences in country-level reporting, AAE values for semi-natural habitats may show large differences across Europe. This paper therefore describes the development of a simpler approach to the modelling of habitat eutrophication. The eutrophication indicator model is applicable to all habitats for which empirical critical loads for nutrient nitrogen have been defined and is easily configured to assess impacts of modelled policies or scenarios on AAE. Outputs from the model showed a high correlation with published AAE data (R² = 0.80) and replicated broad spatial patterns in AAE, but under-estimated actual values by a factor of 2.5. This variation was traced primarily to the use of habitat-specific nitrogen deposition by the CCE which calculates higher nitrogen deposition to forest areas, but also to differences between countries in the critical load thresholds used and the areas of sensitive ecosystems reported. Sensitivity testing showed that exceedance calculations were particularly sensitive to the critical load threshold used, since nitrogen deposition across Europe lies in the middle of most critical load ranges. The indicator model was used to forecast AAE under two scenarios: socio-economic changes under a business as usual scenario to 2025, and the additional effect of agricultural reform where both direct support to farmers and market support were removed. Ammonia emissions showed a net decrease by 2025, with strong regional differentiation. Emissions increased in former Soviet bloc countries and decreased mainly in south west Europe and Finland. Agricultural reform had little additional impact on ammonia emissions. AAE was forecast to decrease by 49% by 2025, due mainly to reductions in emissions of oxidised N from industry and transport, independent of agricultural reform. However, as oxidised N decreases, the relative contribution of N from agricultural sources will increase, and policy measures which reduce ammonia emissions will have increasing relevance for reducing AAE.     

鼎湖山主要森林植物凋落物分解及其对N沉降的响应

研究了鼎湖山森林主要植物凋落物分解及其对模拟 N沉降的响应。凋落物分解速率随林分、树种和分解阶段不同而异。分解试验 3个月后 ,季风常绿阔叶林、混交林和马尾松林分解物残存量占起始量的比例平均分别为 0 .5 0 ,0 .80和 0 .87,且它们的差异均达显著水平 (p<0 .0 5 ) ;6个月后 ,这 3种林分的分解物残存量占起始量的比例平均分别为 0 .4 1、0 .73和 0 .70。试验 3个月后 ,所有试验树种中凋落物分解最快的树种是季风常绿阔叶林的锥栗 (Castanopsis chinensis,残存量占起始量的比例为0 .34)最慢为马尾松林中的马尾松 (Pinus massoniana,残存量占起始量的比例为 0 .87) ;经 6个月后 ,最快的树种是季风常绿阔叶林的华润楠 (Machilus chinensis,残存量占起始量的比例为 0 .2 5 ) ,最慢为混交林中的马尾松 (残存量占起始量的比例为0 .75 )。 N沉降对凋落物分解的影响也随林分、树种和分解阶段不同而异。在马尾松林中 ,N沉降仅在试验开始 3个月对马尾松针叶凋落物分解存在明显的促进作用 (p<0 .0 5 )。在混交林中 ,经 6个月试验后 ,低 N处理对马尾松针叶凋落物分解仍无明显作用 ,中 N处理则明显促进其分解 (p<0 .0 5 ) ,但在两次取样中 N沉降处理对荷木 (Schima superba)凋落物的分解均无显著影响。 N沉降增     

Past and future exceedances of nitrogen critical loads in Europe

Critical loads of acidity and nutrient nitrogen--simple measures of the sensitivity of ecosystems to deposition--have been widely used for setting emission reduction targets in Europe. In contrast to sulfur, the emissions of nitrogen compounds remain high in the future. This is also true for the exceedances of critical loads until 2010. Looking further into the future, climate change is likely to influence ecosystem sensitivity, and thus critical loads. It is shown that higher temperatures, changed precipitation patterns, and modified net primary production mainly increase critical loads, except in mountainous and arid regions. Using consistent scenarios of climate change and air pollution from a recently completed European study (AIR-CLIM), it is shown that the exceedances in 2100 of the critical loads are declining in comparison to 2010. However, exceedances of critical loads of nutrient nitrogen remain substantial, even under the most stringent scenario. This confirms the increasing role nitrogen plays in environmental problems in comparison to sulfur. Thus research should focus on the effects of nitrogen in the environment, especially under conditions of climate change, to support nitrogen-emission mitigating policies. This not only reduces acidification and eutrophication, but also helps curb the formation of tropospheric ozone.     

氮沉降对森林凋落物分解的影响

氮沉降增加作为全球变化的重要现象之一,已经并将继续对森林凋落物分解产生影响.综述了国内外氮沉降对森林凋落物分解影响及其机理的研究现状.氮沉降对凋落物分解的影响可分为直接影响和间接影响.氮沉降通过影响森林地被物组成和凋落物化学成分,间接影响凋落物分解.氮沉降对凋落物分解的直接影响表现为促进、无影响和抑制3种效果.分析了产生以上影响效果的作用机理,介绍了氮沉降对森林凋落物分解影响的研究方法,探讨了目前研究存在的问题,讨论了未来该方面研究的重点和方向.     

模拟大气氮沉降对中国森林生态系统影响的研究进展

人类活动加剧了活性氮的生产和排放,并导致氮沉降日益增加并全球化。目前,人类活动对全球氮循环的干扰已经超出了地球系统安全运行的界限。中国已成为全球氮沉降的高发区域,高氮沉降已经威胁到生态系统的健康和安全,并成为生态文明建设过程中亟待理清和解决的热点问题。对国际上和中国森林生态系统模拟氮沉降研究的概况进行了综述,并从生物学和非生物学两大过程重点阐述模拟氮沉降增加对中国主要森林生态系统影响的研究进展。中国自2000年以后才开始重视大气氮沉降产生的生态环境问题,中国科学院华南植物园在国内森林生态系统模拟氮沉降试验研究上做出了开创性的贡献。模拟氮沉降研究表明,持续高氮输入将会显著改变森林生态系统的结构和功能,并威胁生态系统的健康发展,特别是处于氮沉降热点区域的中国中南部。森林生态系统的氮沉降效应依赖于系统的氮状态、土地利用历史、气候特征、林型和林龄等。最后,对未来的研究提出了一些建议,包括加强长期跟踪研究和不同气候带站点之间的联网研究,特别是在森林生态系统对长期氮沉降响应与适应的过程机制、地下碳氮吸存潜力研究、以及与其他全球变化因子的耦合研究等方面,以期为森林生态系统的可持续发展提供理论基础和管理依据。     

Simulation of Critical Loads for Nitrogen for Terrestrial Plant Communities in The Netherlands

This paper describes a new method to derive nitrogen critical loads for vegetation, and its application to The Netherlands. An ‘inverted’ form of the soil chemical model SMART2 was used to estimate atmospheric nitrogen deposition at the critical conditions for 139 terrestrial vegetation types (associations) occurring in northwestern Europe, using an iterative search procedure. The critical conditions are the lower end of the pH range, and the upper end of the nitrogen availability range for each vegetation type. The critical load is assumed to be the nitrogen deposition that results in the critical conditions. The critical load values were subjected to a sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. Sensitivity analysis showed that the estimated critical N load mainly depends on the vegetation type and to a lesser extent on the soil type and the critical N availability. Of these variables N availability, which was estimated from Ellenberg’s indicator scale, contributes most to the uncertainty. The critical load averaged over all vegetation types and soil types is estimated to be 23 ± 7 kg N ha⁻¹y⁻¹. This is a rather reliable value because its uncertainty is small and it is in agreement with empirical estimates of critical loads. Critical loads per vegetation type are less reliable because they are not correlated to empirical values, although the ranges of simulated and empirical values usually overlap. At the site level, uncertainty becomes very large and it is not possible to determine critical loads with any practical significance. The uncertainties can only be reduced if more data become available on the abiotic response per species under field conditions, at least to nitrogen availability and soil pH.     

Qualitative and quantitative changes in plant nitrogen acquisition induced by anthropogenic nitrogen deposition

Because nitrogen is the mineral nutrient needed in largest amounts by plants, it is usually also the limiting factor for plant growth in terrestrial ecosystems (Vitousek & Howarth, 1991). Consequently, the deposition of oxidized and reduced N compounds will almost invariably have large effects in these systems, and because N availability not only regulates plant growth but also that of organisms at other trophic levels, disturbances of several ecosystem processes might occur. The alternations introduced by deposition of atmospheric N compounds are both of a quantitative and of a qualitative nature. Moreover, N deposition can have phytotoxic as well as growth-stimulating effects.
This short commentary gives a personal view of some of the possible consequences of N deposition on plants. It refers particularly to the oral presentations given by Professor Heinz Rennenberg and Dr Marta Peréz-Soba, and to the discussions held after their talks where appropriate. Separate attention is given to four different consequence of anthropogenic N-deposition: N-availability; N-form, N-uptake by the shoot, and the period of N-uptake. Finally, I have tried to adopt an ecosystem perspective and discuss briefly the concept of critical loads of N.     

Deviances from expected Ellenberg indicator values for nitrogen are related to N throughfall deposition in forests

The indication of environmental changes and their impacts on various compartments of ecosystems are high on the political and scientific agenda. Spatially and temporally different inputs of eutrophying nitrogen compounds into European forest ecosystems and their effects are still of concern. Tending floristic changes and respective changes of nitrogen indicator values are one of the suspected effects. Those can, however, not easily be discovered within any cross-sectional short-term approach. Since continuous long-term observations with a sufficiently large sample on an adequate geographical scale are not available, the investigation of deviations from a rather balanced and scientifically settled relationship between the soil acidity status and N mineralization rate is used to indicate additional nitrogen supply from atmospheric inputs. The suspected deviances show a significant statistical relationship with total N throughfall deposition (to a lesser degree also with oxidised and reduced nitrogen compounds), measured at the same locations. This suggests a higher N availability at sites with greater N deposition rates, causing a disproportion between site-specific mineralization rates and the effective amount of plant available nitrogen. In spite of some minor methodological restrictions, the approach might be an appropriate means to localise and regionalise eutrophying effects from atmospheric deposition of nitrogen on larger scales.     

Calculation of theoretical and empirical nutrient N critical loads in the mixed conifer ecosystems of southern California

Edaphic, foliar, and hydrologic forest nutrient status indicators from 15 mixed conifer forest stands in the Sierra Nevada, San Gabriel Mountains, and San Bernardino National Forest were used to estimate empirical or theoretical critical loads (CL) for nitrogen (N) as a nutrient. Soil acidification response to N deposition was also evaluated. Robust empirical relationships were found relating N deposition to plant N uptake (N in foliage), N fertility (litter C/N ratio), and soil acidification. However, no consistent empirical CL were obtained when the thresholds for parameters indicative of N excess from other types of ecosystems were used. Similarly, the highest theoretical CL for nutrient N calculated using the simple mass balance steady state model (estimates ranging from 1.4-8.8 kg N/ha/year) was approximately two times lower than the empirical observations. Further research is needed to derive the thresholds for indicators associated with the impairment of these mixed conifer forests exposed to chronic N deposition within a Mediterranean climate. Further development or parameterization of models for the calculation of theoretical critical loads suitable for these ecosystems will also be an important aspect of future critical loads research.     

Nitrogen Depletion and Redistribution by Free‐Ranging Cattle in the Restoration Process of Mosaic Landscapes: The Role of Foraging Strategy and Habitat Proportion

In a mosaic landscape in N‐Belgium (W‐Europe), consisting of forest, grassland, and wooded pasture on former agricultural land, we assessed nitrogen redistribution by free‐ranging cattle (±0.2 animal units ha^?1 yr^?1). We examined if the spatial redistribution of nitrogen among habitats by cattle could restore nutrient‐poor conditions in preferred foraging habitats, and conversely whether such translocation could lead to extreme eutrophication in preferred resting habitats. We used nitrogen content of different diet classes, habitat use, foraging and defecation behavior, weight gain, and nitrogen losses in the actual situation to explore four different habitat proportion scenarios and two different foraging strategies to calculate a net nitrogen balance per habitat. An atmospheric deposition of 30 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1 with varying interception factors according to the habitat types was included in an integrated nitrogen balance. All scenarios showed a net nitrogen transport from grassland and wooded pasture to forest habitat. We found that nitrogen redistribution strongly depends on habitat proportion. Nitrogen losses from preferred grassland habitat can be high, given its proportion is small. Depletion is only to be expected at excretion‐free areas and probably is of minor importance to trigger the establishment of woody species. In general, nitrogen transported by cattle was much lower than input by atmospheric deposition, but grazing can compensate for high N inputs in excretion‐free areas and maintain grassland types that support critical loads of 20–25 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1. In none of the scenarios, N transport by cattle resulted in the exceeding of critical nitrogen loads to vulnerable forest ground vegetation.     

Influence of canopy budget model approaches on atmospheric deposition estimates to forests

Accurate quantification of total nitrogen and acidifying deposition is a major source of uncertainty in determining the exceedance of critical loads in forest ecosystems. Monitoring of atmospheric deposition is frequently based on throughfall measurements in combination with the canopy budget model to calculate ion-exchange fluxes between the forest canopy and incident rainfall water. Various approaches for each step in the canopy budget model have been reported and compared, but combinations of different approaches were not yet assessed. Therefore, the present study quantified the range of estimated dry deposition and total deposition resulting from all possible combinations of canopy budget model approaches for three typical case studies: (i) total nitrogen and potentially acidifying deposition onto a forest canopy, (ii) the ratio of these deposition variables between adjacent coniferous and deciduous stands and (iii) the parameters of a deposition time trend analysis. The time step, type of precipitation data and tracer ion used in the model had a significant effect on the findings in the three case studies. In addition, including or excluding canopy leaching of weak acids and canopy uptake of nitrogen during the leafless season largely affected the results, while including or excluding canopy uptake of nitrate generally showed no effect. In general, the use of wet-only precipitation data can be recommended, along with sodium as a tracer ion and the inclusion of weak acids. We conclude that further research should focus on the assumptions of inertness of the tracer ion and the equal deposition efficiency of base cations and the tracer ion and on the quantification of weak acids in rainfall and throughfall water. Since local or tree-species specific effects might influence the results obtained in this study, a similar analysis is recommended for other tree species and regions when using the canopy budget model.     

The nitrogen status of Austrian forest ecosystems as influenced by atmospheric deposition,biomass harvesting and lateral organomass exchange

Measurements of the deposition rates of atmospheric trace constituents to forest ecosystems in Austria have shown that the deposition of plant utilizable nitrogen compounds is in the range from 12 kg N to more than 30 kg N ha^-1 a^-1. Locally, even higher deposition rates are encountered as a consequence of point sources or special deposition mechanisms such as fog interception, hoar frost formation, and accumulation in snow drifts. In order to place these values into perspective, they are compared with the nitrogen demand of past and present forest land use and with natural processes of nitrogen depletion and accumulation in forest ecosystems. During wind erosion of forest litter, woody material with a wide C/N-ratio remains on the windward side of ridges, while nutrient-rich material with a narrow C/N-ratio is deposited on the leeward side. As a result, total nitrogen storage in the forest soil as well as overall C/N-ratios change dramatically along a transect over a ridge, thus indicating a strong influence of litter C/N ratio on nitrogen retention in the forest soil. A study of nitrogen stores in the soil of beech ecosystems of the same yield class in the Vienna Woods showed a significant correlation of total N-content with base saturation. These results suggest that nitrogen storage capacity of forest soils may be managed by liming and tree species selection. As knowledge is still meagre, a special study on factors which determine nitrogen storage in forest soils is proposed within the FERN-programme.     

氮沉降对森林生态系统碳吸存的影响

工业化带来的大气氮沉降增加是影响森林生态系统碳吸存的重要因素。将森林碳库分为地上和地下两部分,从3个方面综述了国内外氮沉降对森林生态系统碳吸存影响的研究现状。(1)地上部分:氮限制的温带森林,氮沉降增加了地上部分碳吸存。氮丰富的热带森林,氮沉降对地上部分碳吸存没有影响。过量的氮输入会造成森林死亡率的上升,从而降低地上部分碳吸存。(2)地下部分:相比地上部分研究得少,表现为增加、降低和没有影响3种效果。(3)目前的结论趋向于认为氮沉降促进森林生态系统碳吸存,然而氮沉降所带来的森林生态系统碳吸存能力到底有多大依然无法确定,这也将成为未来氮碳循环研究的重点问题。分析了氮沉降影响森林生态系统碳吸存的机理,介绍了氮沉降对森林生态系统碳吸存影响的4种研究方法。探讨了该领域研究的不足及未来的研究方向。     

模拟氮沉降降低亚热带米槠天然林土壤氧化亚氮排放潜势

我国亚热带地区大气氮沉降量逐年上升,对森林土壤生物地球化学循环造成严重影响。本研究设置了对照(不添加氮)、低氮(40 kg·hm^-2·a^-1)和高氮(80 kg·hm^-2·a^-1)处理,分析了亚热带米槠天然林土壤反硝化功能基因丰度和N₂O排放潜势对氮沉降的响应。结果表明: 高氮处理显著降低土壤N₂O排放潜势。长期(8年)氮沉降对nirS、nirK、nosZ Ⅰ和nosZ Ⅱ基因丰度均无显著影响,但nosZ Ⅰ丰度均显著高于nosZ Ⅱ丰度,表明nosZ Ⅰ在酸性森林土壤中占主导。与对照相比,高氮处理显著降低(nirK+nirS)/(nosZ Ⅰ+nosZ Ⅱ)值。(nirK+nirS)/(nosZ Ⅰ+nosZ Ⅱ)值与土壤pH值呈显著正相关。长期高氮沉降可能通过降低土壤pH值使得土壤(nirK+nirS)/(nosZ Ⅰ+nosZ Ⅱ)值下降,从而降低森林土壤N₂O排放潜势。     

模拟氮沉降对温带典型森林土壤有效氮形态和含量的影响

通过室内模拟氮沉降试验,研究了氮沉降对温带典型森林土壤有效氮的影响.结果表明：试验期间,与对照相比,经过氮沉降处理的土壤铵态氮、硝态氮和有效氮均呈增长的趋势,增加的程度取决于森林类型、土层、氮处理类型和氮处理的持续时间.氮沉降对不同林型土壤有效氮形态和含量的影响不同,氮沉降对混交林的影响弱于阔叶林,强于针叶人工纯林;土壤A层对氮沉降的敏感程度大于土壤B层;铵态氮形态沉降对土壤铵态氮含量的影响比对土壤硝态氮含量的影响大,而硝态氮形态沉降对土壤硝态氮含量的影响比对土壤铵态氮含量的影响大,混合形态的氮沉降对二者均有促进作用,且增加幅度更高;氮沉降对土壤有效氮的影响存在累加效应.     

Characterising the effects of high ammonia emission on the growth of Norway spruce

This paper studies the effects of high ammonia emissions and nitrogen deposition on tree growth. Wood cores of 125 Norway spruces were analysed along a transect (800 m) from forest edge to forest interior. The forest edge was exposed to a strong ammonia emission source (poultry farm, less than 50 m). Atmospheric nitrogen bulk deposition, ammonia concentration, soil solution concentration, soil nutrient content, foliar N concentration and C/N ratio of the humus layer were measured at five plots along the transect. The tree growth increment of two clusters of trees close to the forest edge and forest interior was compared. The results indicate extremely high nitrogen load at the forest edge. All nitrogen variables show an `edge effect' with increasing values from forest interior to the forest edge. The growth of nitrogen-influenced spruce trees generally increases. Trees with excessive long-term nitrogen load appear to loose increment after a long-term nitrogen impact. The average gain of increment at the edge appears to be related to the amount of nitrogen emission.     

Factors controlling long-term changes in soil pools of exchangeable basic cations and stream acid neutralizing capacity in a northern hardwood forest ecosystem

Understanding the factors regulating the concentrations of basic cations in soils and surface waters is critical if rates of recovery are to be predicted in response to decreases in acidic deposition. Using a dynamic simulation model (PnET-BGC), we evaluated the extent to which atmospheric deposition of strong acids and associated leaching by strong anions, atmospheric deposition of basic cations through changes in emissions of particulate matter, and historical forest cutting have influenced soil pools of exchangeable basic cations and the acid-base status of stream water at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF) in New Hampshire. Historical deposition of basic cations was reconstructed from regression relationships with particulate matter emissions. Simulation results indicate that the combination of these factors has resulted in changes in the percent soil base saturation, and stream pH and acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) from pre-industrial estimates of 20%, 6.3 and 45 eq L^–1, respectively, to current values of 10%, 5.0 and –5 eq L^–1, respectively. These current values fall within the critical thresholds at which forest vegetation and aquatic biotic are at risk from soil and surface water acidification due to acidic deposition. While the deposition of strong acid anions had the largest impact on the acid-base status of soil and stream water, the reduction in deposition of basic cations associated with reductions in particulate emissions was estimated to have contributed about 27% of the depletion in soil Ca²⁺ exchange pool and 15% of the decreases in stream water concentrations of basic cations. Decline in stream water concentrations of basic cation occurred under both increasing and decreasing exchangeable pools, depending on the process controlling the acid base status of the ecosystem. Model calculations suggest that historical forest cutting has resulted in only slight decreases in soil pools of exchangeable basic cations, and has had a limited effect on stream ANC over the long-term.     

Nitrogen deposition and leaching from two forested catchments in Southwest China--preliminary data and research needs

Increased nitrogen deposition has resulted in increased nitrogen pools and nitrogen leaching in European and North American forest soils. The development in Asia in general, and China in particular, suggests increased deposition of reduced nitrogen from changes in agricultural practices and of oxidized nitrogen from rapid growth of the transportation sector. Decreased nitrogen retention in forested areas in the future may cause increased NO3- leaching and, thus, acidification and eutrophication in surface waters. The differences in climate, ecosystems, land use, and deposition history make direct application of knowledge from studies in Europe and North America difficult. In Southwest China the potential for nitrogen mobilization from forest soils may be high because of the warm and humid climate, resulting in high decomposition rates of soil organic matter. However, there are very few data available for quantifying the suspected potential for increased nitrogen leaching in forest ecosystems. Here we present data from two forested catchments, dominated by Masson pine (Pinus massoniana), near Guiyang and Chongqing, respectively, in Southwest China. The present nitrogen deposition is moderate, estimated in the range from 10 to 40 kg N ha(-1) year(-1). The C/N ratios of the soils are generally below 15. Nitrate concentrations in soil water are rather variable in space, with highest values of several hundred microequivalents per liter. The turnover rate of nitrogen in the forest ecosystem is quite high compared to the atmospheric deposition rate. At present, nitrate runoff from the catchments is low and intermediate in Guiyang and Chongqing, respectively. More research is needed to improve our ability to predict future nitrogen leaching from subtropical Asian coniferous forests.