刺参对筏式贝藻养殖系统不同碳、氮负荷自污染物的生物清除

针对我国北方浅海筏式贝藻养殖系统自身污染输出导致的环境问题,以滤食性贝类生物沉积物和海藻粉的不同配比来模拟贝藻筏式养殖系统不同碳、氮负荷的颗粒自污染物,研究了刺参摄取这些颗粒物后的碳、氮收支,评估了其对碳和氮生源要素的生物清除潜力。结果表明,刺参对筏式贝藻养殖系统不同配比颗粒自污染物中的碳和氮具有较强的摄食能力,摄食率分别为35.77～181.18mgC·g-1·d-1和6.08～14.28mgN·g-1·d-1;颗粒自污染物中碳和氮的含量越高,其摄食碳、氮的能力越强。刺参摄取的碳以粪便碳形式排出居多(59.3%～97.1%),其次是呼吸消耗的碳(9.9%～37.3%),而用于生长的碳最少(-7.0%～6.1%);刺参摄取的氮主要用于排泄消耗为主(53.1%～63.1%),粪便氮次之(27.7%～39.2%),用于生长的氮最少(-2.3%～16.7%)。通过建立的碳、氮收支方程,估算出刺参对筏式贝藻养殖系统不同碳、氮负荷自污染物的生物清除效率(SE)分别为0.83～4.57mgC·g-1·d-1和0.28～0.76mgN·g-1·d-1;而且其清除效率随着颗粒自污染物中碳、氮含量的升高而增大,呈明显的正相关关系;清除效率和碳(C)、氮(N)含量之间回归关系可用SEC=0.7368+14.9488C和SEN=0.2281+0.2202N来描述。     

厦门港表层水体磷周转的生物学过程Ⅱ：桡足类对浮游植物的摄食压力

为了解桡足类在磷的生物地球化学循环中的作用,于2005年5、8、11月和2006年3月分别在厦门时间序列站（XMTS）采用肠道色素法,研究了桡足类对浮游植物的现场摄食率,同步分析了桡足类的种类组成和数量变化,进而得到桡足类群体对浮游植物的摄食率.结果表明：厦门港桡足类对浮游植物的年平均摄食率为55.53 μg·m^-3·d^-1;其中秋季最高,为108.98 μg·m^-3·d^-1,夏季最低,为7.18 μg·m^-3·d^-1.根据试验数据估算,厦门港桡足类对浮游植物现存量的摄食压力四季平均为1.81%,春、夏、秋、冬分别为3.22%、0.06%、3.52%和0.46%.     

施用坡缕石对黄绵土中尿素氮的挥发和淋溶损失的影响

通过室内模拟试验,采用吸收法和土柱淋溶法研究了施用坡缕石对黄绵土中尿素氮的挥发和淋溶的影响.结果表明：施用坡缕石+尿素处理能降低尿素氨挥发高峰期的挥发速率,比单施尿素处理的氨挥发损失减少了13.6%～15.0%.坡缕石施用量为0.3和0.6 g·kg^-1时,降低了NH₄⁺-N和NO₃^--N的淋溶速率,无机氮淋溶损失比单施尿素处理分别减少13.7%和13.6%;而坡缕石施用量为0.9 g·kg^-1时,加快了NH₄⁺-N和NO₃^--N的淋溶速率,无机氮淋溶损失比单施尿素处理增加了6.1%.施用低量（0.3 g·kg^-1）坡缕石+尿素处理土壤的NH₄⁺-N含量比单施尿素处理提高了0.20 mg·kg^-1,而施用高量（0.9 g·kg^-1）坡缕石+尿素处理土壤的NH₄⁺-N含量比单施尿素处理降低了0.42 mg·kg^-1;施用坡缕石+尿素处理土壤的NO₃^--N含量比单施尿素处理增加1.24～2.52 mg·kg^-1.表明施用坡缕石能减少土壤中尿素氨的挥发损失,在一定用量范围内能降低NH₄⁺-N和NO₃^--N的淋失,提高土壤NH₄⁺-N和NO₃^--N含量.     

水肥处理对黄瓜土壤养分、酶及微生物多样性的影响

以津优1号黄瓜为试材,设3个土壤相对含水量水平（50%～60%、70%～80%、90%～100%）和2个肥料追施量（600 kg N·hm^-2和420 kg P₂O₅·hm^-2,420 kg N·hm^-2和294 kg P₂O₅·hm^-2）处理,研究了不同水肥供应对日光温室黄瓜土壤养分、酶活性及微生物多样性的影响.结果表明：土壤中NH₄⁺-N含量随施肥量的增加而提高,随土壤相对含水量的增加而降低;水肥供给的增加有利于提高土壤中速效磷含量和蔗糖酶活性;肥料增加使土壤中蛋白酶活性降低,而水分降低使土壤中脲酶活性提高.土壤中微生物多样性与土壤中养分含量无显著相关性,与土壤脲酶活性呈显著正相关,与蔗糖酶活性呈显著负相关.土壤相对含水量70%～80%、氮肥追施量600 kg N·hm^-2和420 kg P₂O₅·hm^-2处理的土壤养分含量、蔗糖酶、磷酸酶和脲酶活性较高,且土壤中微生物多样性和均匀度显著高于其他处理,土壤生产潜力最优.     

上海地区大气氮湿沉降及其对湿地水环境的影响

根据1998～2003年上海地区雨水中NO₃^--N、NH₄⁺-N浓度,采用单因子评估模式评价了降雨对湿地水环境的影响,并结合降雨量数据,研究了大气湿沉降氮通量.结果表明,上海地区雨水中氮浓度较高,6年雨水平均硝态氮浓度为259 mg·L^-1,铵态氮浓度为2.16 mg·L^-1,总无机氮（TIN）浓度474 mg·L^-1,远大于水体富营养水中氮浓度阀值（0.2 mg·L^-1）,依据降水中的氮浓度,降水已达到地表水V类、劣V类水平.6年湿沉降氮通量平均值为58.1 kg·hm^-2·yr^-1,其中NO₃^--N占54%.大气氮沉降对湿地水体富营养化影响值得关注.     

非点源污染物在沟渠湿地中的累积和植物吸收净化

对有机质和总氮在沟渠湿地底泥中的垂直分布和水平分布的研究表明,40 cm以下深度的芦苇(Phragmites communis)和茭草(Zizania latifolia)湿地底泥对有机质和总氮有显著的持留和累积作用;但表层底泥中含量随季节变化大,最高与最低值相差近2倍以上.有机质和总氮之间有极显著的相关关系,在芦苇和茭草湿地底泥中的相关系数分别为0.9876和0.9335.水体中总氮与NH₄⁺-N和NO₃-N也显著相关,表明总氮的主要成分是有机氮,其矿化作用是无机氮的重要来源.每年秋季芦苇收割以后,可带走氮818 kg·hm^-2和磷103.6 kg·hm^-2,茭草可带走氮131 kg·hm^-2和磷28.9 kg·hm^-2.茭白对氮的吸收能力高,试验表明,利用茭白取代野生植物,既能取得很好的净化效果,又可被农民主动回收,解决植物的二次污染问题.     

氮磷营养因子对赤潮异弯藻生长的影响

研究了N、P营养浓度对赤潮异弯藻(Heterosigma akashiwo)生长的影响.结果表明,该藻的生长速率与N、P营养因子浓度的关系符合Monod公式.在NO₃^--N浓度达到7.5 mg·L^-1时,赤潮异弯藻开始生长;浓度为3.75～75 mg·L^-1时,赤潮异弯藻的比生长速率与NO₃^--N浓度成正比关系.N营养充足时,赤潮异弯藻的最大生长速率μ_m-n=0.3475·d^-1,K_s-n=18.91 mg·L^-1.PO₄^--P浓度为0～1.0 mg·L^-1时,赤潮异弯藻的比生长速率与P浓度成正比关系;P营养充足时,赤潮异弯藻的最大生长速率μ_m-p=0.3024·d^-1,K_s-p=0.4086 mg·L^-1.N/P达到25后藻细胞浓度达到最大,表明N/P为25时最适合赤潮异弯藻生长.赤潮异弯藻最适合在N 37.5～225.0 mg·L^-1、P 5.0～50.0 mg·L^-1、N/P=25条件下生长.     

不同浓度铵态氮对镉胁迫轮叶黑藻生长及抗氧化酶系统的影响

用含有不同浓度NH₄⁺-N (0、0.5、2.0和4.0 mg·L^-1)和10 mg·L^-1Cd的1/10 Hoagland营养液培养沉水植物轮叶黑藻,研究了氨态氮对Cd胁迫下轮叶黑藻的生长及抗氧化酶系统的影响,探讨富营养化污染水体沉水植物退化机理.结果表明,10 mg·L^-1Cd对轮叶黑藻能产生明显的胁迫作用,叶绿素合成量明显降低;超氧化物岐化酶(SOD)与过氧化物酶(POD)活性呈先升高后下降的趋势.NH₄⁺-N能加速Cd对植物的胁迫作用,单因子Cd作用3 h时SOD明显升高,而Cd和NH₄⁺-N共同作用0.5 h SOD就明显升高.Cd与NH₄⁺-N共同作用时,相对于叶绿素和蛋白质,抗氧化酶是早期敏感指标,并且SOD比POD更敏感.本试验条件下,NH₄⁺-N与Cd共同作用2 d后,对轮叶黑藻的胁迫作用主要取决于Cd,NH₄⁺-N的作用几乎可以忽略.     

外源甜菜碱对水分胁迫下桃树生理响应的影响

以4年生盆栽“庆丰”桃树为试材,研究了水分胁迫下桃树叶片中甜菜碱含量的变化规律及叶面喷施甜菜碱对水分胁迫下桃树生理响应的影响.结果表明：正常供水情况下,桃树叶片中甜菜碱含量为75.9～80.5 μg·g^-1FM , 随着水分胁迫程度的加深,甜菜碱含量逐渐增加,停水第16 天时达278.9 μg·g^-1FM ;正常供水时桃叶片细胞质膜透性为8.06%～8.61%,水分胁迫下增至28.62%,叶面喷施100和500 mg·L^-1甜菜碱16d后分别为26.25%和21.79%;过氧化氢(H₂O₂)含量由正常情况下的27.2～32.5 μmol·g^-1FM 增至胁迫后的76.4 μmol·g^-1FM,叶面喷施100和500 mg·L^-1甜菜碱后分别为73.2和68.5 μmol·g^-1 FM;水分胁迫下,抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(AsA-POD)活性峰值为0.435 mg·g^-1 FM,甜菜碱处理后峰值达到0.490 mg·g^-1 FM;游离脯氨酸与可溶性糖在干旱胁迫下逐渐累积, 500 mg·L^-1甜菜碱处理分别为2.878 mg·g^-1 FM和37.6 mg·g^-1 FM,均低于单纯胁迫及100 mg·L^-1甜菜碱处理;可溶性蛋白质含量在水分胁迫下呈下降趋势,甜菜碱处理后最小值为4.03 mg·g^-1 FM,较单纯胁迫下的最低值（3.14 mg·g^-1 FM）高20.3%.表明叶面喷施甜菜碱能在一定程度上减轻桃树的受害程度,提高其抗旱性.     

温带红松阔叶混交林凋落叶与主要大型土壤动物热值的季节变化

对温带红松阔叶混交林不同种类凋落叶、混合凋落叶和主要大型土壤动物的干质量热值及季节变化规律进行了研究.结果表明：不同种类凋落叶和3种大型土壤动物的干质量热值不同,且其季节变化规律存在一定的差异.红松凋落叶的干质量热值平均值最高(19.71 kJ·g^-1),枫桦(18.22 kJ·g^-1)、紫椴(18.13 kJ·g^-1)、混合凋落叶(17.91 kJ·g^-1)居中,水曲柳(16.94 kJ·g^-1)和色木槭(16.25 kJ·g^-1)最低.红松和色木槭凋落叶干质量热值随凋落叶分解进行呈逐渐降低趋势,水曲柳凋落叶干质量热值季节变化较小,而紫椴、枫桦和混合凋落叶干质量热值次年有上升的趋势.大型土壤动物中,蜈蚣(22.07 kJ·g^-1)的干质量热值最高,蚯蚓(16.72 kJ·g^-1) 次之,马陆(13.28 kJ·g^-1)最低.蚯蚓和马陆干质量热值的季节变化规律一致,蜈蚣干质量热值的季节变化规律则有所不同.凋落叶和3种大型土壤动物干质量热值的季节变化之间没有明显的相关性.     

Filtration and clearance rates of Anadara grandis juveniles (Pelecypoda, Arcidae) with different temperatures and suspended matter concentrations

The mangrove cockle Anadara grandis (Broderip and Sowerby, 1829) is a potential candidate for aquaculture and for bioremediation of aquaculture effluents in the tropical and subtropical coastal areas of the eastern Pacific Ocean. Laboratory-produced spat are available, but there is no information on their responses to the range of environmental conditions to which they might be subject during the growth cycle. The aim of this study was to evaluate the filtration and clearance rates ofA. grandis spat (shell length 9.50+/-0.37 mm) with a food concentration (7.5 mgxl(-1)) at four different temperatures (22, 25, 28 and 31 degrees C, with pH=7.5+/-0.2 and O2 concentration of 6.4+/-0.5 mgxl(-1); experiment one); and with a temperature (25 degrees C) and five concentrations of suspended matter (from 7.5 to 29 mgxl(-1) and pH and O2 values of 7.9+/-0.2 and 6.8+/-0.4 mgxl(-1); experiment two). Filtration and clearance rates were highest at 25 degrees C and significantly different (p<.05) from those obtained at 22, 28 and 31 degrees C; the clearance rates had the same tendency but the differences were not significant (p>.05). In the second experiment filtration increased according to the amount of food available, but there were no significant differences (p>.05) between 7.5 and 11 mgxl(-1) and from 22.4 to 29 mgxl(-1). The trend was similar for clearance, and in this case significant differences were found (p<.05) between 7.5, 22.4 and 29 mgxl(-1). Filtration at 31 degrees C was close to 80% at the optimum temperature of 25 degrees C, which indicates that A. grandis is a good candidate for tropical aquaculture. Clearance increased with high concentrations of suspended solids, but the production of biodeposits could be a source of environmental concern. Therefore, the possibility of using this species for bioremediation of aquaculture effluents should be studied with larger specimens and at higher seston concentrations.     

庄河海域菲律宾蛤仔底播增殖区自身污染

采用生物沉积物捕集器和封闭式代谢瓶,周年现场研究了庄河海域菲律宾蛤仔的生物沉积速率、排氨率和排磷率.结果表明:菲律宾蛤仔的生物沉积速率、排氨率和排磷率均具有明显的季节变化.生物沉积速率为0.15～1.47 g·ind-1·d-1(年均0.61 g·ind-1·d-1);其排氨率及排磷率分别为0.02～0.40 mg·ind-1·d-1(年均0.17 mg·ind-1·d-1)和0.01～0.39 mg·ind-1·d-1(年均0.13 mg·ind-1·d-1).根据以上结果,估算庄河海域底播增殖菲律宾蛤仔每年产生的生物沉积物达到5.46×107t(干质量),折合有机物9.07×106t、有机碳1.00x106t和有机氮1.18xlO5t;而氨氮和磷酸盐分别为1.49x104t和1.15x104t.表明浅海高密度、规模化菲律宾蛤仔增养殖区自身污染严重,其对环境的影响不可忽视.     

刺参对生境的选择性及其行为生理响应

在室内模拟环境条件下, 研究了刺参(Apostichopus japonicus)对鳗草(Zostera marina)、裸沙和石块生境的选择性和偏好性, 比较分析了刺参在不同生境的平均聚集率、行为特征(爬行、摄食与排泄行为)和生理状态(刺参肌肉ATP含量、体腔液多巴胺、肾上腺素、去甲肾上腺素和皮质醇含量)。结果显示: (1)刺参对鳗草生境的选择和偏好显著高于裸沙生境与石块生境, 其在鳗草生境的平均聚集率达到64%, 是裸沙生境的4.5倍; (2)刺参在鳗草生境的行为活动显著高于石块生境与裸沙生境, 其爬行行为和摄食行为的出现频率是石块生境的2倍, 排泄行为明显, 刺参粪便的长度和厚度分别是裸沙生境的1.9倍和2.5倍; (3)刺参在鳗草生境的肌肉ATP含量是裸沙生境和石块生境的2倍。结果表明, 刺参对鳗草生境具有明显的选择性, 其在鳗草生境行为活跃, 免疫功能提高, 说明鳗草草床是刺参绿色生态牧场构建的优良生境。     

Polysaccharides from Astragalus membranaceus promote phagocytosis and superoxide anion (O2-) production by coelomocytes from sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus in vitro

The potential immunostimulatory effects of Astralagus membranaceus polysaccharides (APS) on sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka), were investigated in vitro. Phagocytosis and superoxide anion (O(2)(-)) production by phagocytic amoebocytes (PA) from A. japonicus coelomic fluid were measured during incubation at 18 degrees C, 22 degrees C, or 25 degrees C with APS at 0, 10, 20, or 40 microg mL(-1) (n=3). Phagocytic activity against yeast cells was quantified by direct visualization, and O(2)(-) production by nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) reduction assay. Compared with controls, including APS at 20 microg mL(-1) significantly increased (P<0.05) the percentage of phagocytic capacity (PC) and phagocytic index (PI) at 18 degrees C and 22 degrees C, but no significant enhancement was observed at 25 degrees C. In contrast, the coelmocytes of A. japonicus can have an obvious generation of O(2)(-) after the stimulation. The concentration of 20 microg mL(-1) APS resulted in a significant increase in nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) positive cells (P<0.05) at different temperature and even 10 microg mL(-1) APS could increase O(2)(-) generation significantly at 18 degrees C and 22 degrees C. Both phagocytosing and O(2)(-) production increased with the increase of APS concentration from 0 to 20 microg mL(-1) at different temperature, and when APS at 40 microg mL(-1), they were decreased. It suggested that immunocytes activity in A. japonicus decreased with the temperature increasing from 18 degrees C to 25 degrees C, and APS could be an effective immunostimulant to enhance phagocytic activity and O(2)(-) production.     

Physiological energetics of the ascidian Styela clava in relation to body size and temperature.

The ascidian Styela clava is widely distributed in northern China and is thought to be important in the functioning of estuarine systems. This ascidian may experience highly variable physiological conditions, and its physiological responses to these are of interest considering its ecological role. This study presents data on the physiological parameters in relation to body size and temperature (12-28 degrees C) of S. clava. Respiration, excretion, feces, ingestion and absorption energy were positive related to size and its mass exponents (b-values) varied from 0.2930 to 0.7488. Respiration energy increased with increasing, but critical values were found at 20 degrees C for energy of ingestion and absorption, while 24 degrees C for energy in feces and excretion. At the range of 16-24 degrees C, the scope for growth, gross and net growth efficiencies of ascidians increased with increasing temperature. The energy budget equations of different sized ascidians were obtained at different temperatures. Excretion energy shared a minimal fraction in ingestion energy (1.30-2.47%), the ratios of feces energy and respiration energy to ingestion energy were 46.53-64.27% and 10.26-80.75%, respectively. The physiological data obtained in the present study indicated that S. clava could adjust its energy budget according to the environment and its physiological conditions to meet their nutritional and energetic demands. In the range of experimental temperature (12-28 degrees C), 16-20 degrees C was suitable for the rearing of S. clava to achieve optimum development, while deficient metabolic adjustment induced a negative scope for growth of S. clava at 28 degrees C.     

Physiological energetics of the ascidian Styela clava in relation to body size and temperature

The ascidian Styela clava is widely distributed in northern China and is thought to be important in the functioning of estuarine systems. This ascidian may experience highly variable physiological conditions, and its physiological responses to these are of interest considering its ecological role. This study presents data on the physiological parameters in relation to body size and temperature (12-28 degrees C) of S. clava. Respiration, excretion, feces, ingestion and absorption energy were positive related to size and its mass exponents (b-values) varied from 0.2930 to 0.7488. Respiration energy increased with increasing, but critical values were found at 20 degrees C for energy of ingestion and absorption, while 24 degrees C for energy in feces and excretion. At the range of 16-24 degrees C, the scope for growth, gross and net growth efficiencies of ascidians increased with increasing temperature. The energy budget equations of different sized ascidians were obtained at different temperatures. Excretion energy shared a minimal fraction in ingestion energy (1.30-2.47%), the ratios of feces energy and respiration energy to ingestion energy were 46.53-64.27% and 10.26-80.75%, respectively. The physiological data obtained in the present study indicated that S. clava could adjust its energy budget according to the environment and its physiological conditions to meet their nutritional and energetic demands. In the range of experimental temperature (12-28 degrees C), 16-20 degrees C was suitable for the rearing of S. clava to achieve optimum development, while deficient metabolic adjustment induced a negative scope for growth of S. clava at 28 degrees C.     

Bivalve aquaculture‐environment interactions in the context of climate change

Coastal embayments are at risk of impacts by climate change drivers such as ocean warming, sea level rise and alteration in precipitation regimes. The response of the ecosystem to these drivers is highly dependent on their magnitude of change, but also on physical characteristics such as bay morphology and river discharge, which play key roles in water residence time and hence estuarine functioning. These considerations are especially relevant for bivalve aquaculture sites, where the cultured biomass can alter ecosystem dynamics. The combination of climate change, physical and aquaculture drivers can result in synergistic/antagonistic and nonlinear processes. A spatially explicit model was constructed to explore effects of the physical environment (bay geomorphic type, freshwater inputs), climate change drivers (sea level, temperature, precipitation) and aquaculture (bivalve species, stock) on ecosystem functioning. A factorial design led to 336 scenarios (48 hydrodynamic × 7 management). Model outcomes suggest that the physical environment controls estuarine functioning given its influence on primary productivity (bottom‐up control dominated by riverine nutrients) and horizontal advection with the open ocean (dominated by bay geomorphic type). The intensity of bivalve aquaculture ultimately determines the bivalve–phytoplankton trophic interaction, which can range from a bottom‐up control triggered by ammonia excretion to a top‐down control via feeding. Results also suggest that temperature is the strongest climate change driver due to its influence on the metabolism of poikilothermic organisms (e.g. zooplankton and bivalves), which ultimately causes a concomitant increase of top‐down pressure on phytoplankton. Given the different thermal tolerance of cultured species, temperature is also critical to sort winners from losers, benefiting Crassostrea virginica over Mytilus edulis under the specific conditions tested in this numerical exercise. In general, it is predicted that bays with large rivers and high exchange with the open ocean will be more resilient under climate change when bivalve aquaculture is present.     

Effects of three biological control approaches and their combination on the restoration of eutrophicated waterbodies

Choosing appropriate approaches is a key to successfully using biological control measures to accelerate the recovery of eutrophic waterbodies. In this study, we used three biomanipulation approaches—including introducing filter-feeding bivalves, stocking planktivorous fish, replanting submerged macrophytes—as well as an approach that combined all three of these methods in order to investigate their effects on water quality and plankton communities within simulation experiment systems. The experimental results showed that only stocking filter-feeding bivalves or fish could not significantly control the total algal biomass and water nutrient concentrations compared to those of the controls. The cladoceran biomasses were reduced under the treatments of stocking filter-feeding bivalves or fish. However, replanting macrophytes and a combined biological restoration approach could significantly reduce the algal biomass and the nutrient content, and both of these methods increased cladoceran biomass. The results of factor analysis of ten environmental parameters suggested that a combined biological restoration treatment was the most effective at controlling the algal biomass and reducing the nutrient content. In conclusion, combination of biological restoration measures was the best treatment out of the three treatments that were tested, and we suggest that more whole-lake scale experiments are needed. Additionally, designing a combined approach should not be a simple superposition of individual measures, but the measures should be complementary to each other.     

A Novel Filtering Mutualism between a Sponge Host and Its Endosymbiotic Bivalves

Sponges, porous filter-feeding organisms consisting of vast canal systems, provide unique substrates for diverse symbiotic organisms. The Spongia (Spongia) sp. massive sponge is obligately inhabited by the host-specific endosymbiotic bivalve Vulsella vulsella, which benefits from this symbiosis by receiving protection from predators. However, whether the host sponge gains any benefit from this association is unclear. Considering that the bivalves exhale filtered water into the sponge body rather than the ambient environment, the sponge is hypothesized to utilize water exhaled by the bivalves to circulate water around its body more efficiently. We tested this hypothesis by observing the sponge aquiferous structure and comparing the pumping rates of sponges and bivalves. Observations of water currents and the sponge aquiferous structure revealed that the sponge had a unique canal system enabling it to inhale water exhaled from bivalves, indicating that the host sponge adapted morphologically to receive water from the bivalves. In addition, the volume of water circulating in the sponge body was dramatically increased by the water exhaled from bivalves. Therefore, this sponge-bivalve association can be regarded as a novel mutualism in which two filter-feeding symbionts promote mutual filtering rates. This symbiotic association should be called a “filtering mutualism”.