Fruit photosynthesis

Abstract. In addition to photosynthesis as in the leaf, fruit possess a system which refixes CO₂ from the mitochondrial respiration of predominantly imported carbon. This pathway produces malate by the action of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, PEPC, (E.C. 4.1.1.31) and appears to be regulated primarily by the cytosolic concentration of HCO₃/CO₂ and malate. Malate is stored in the vacuole as malic acid, constituting a major carbon pool and a potential substrate for respiration. The PEPC in apple fruit proves to be an efficient form of the enzyme with low Michaelis constants, i.e. Km = 0.09 mol m^-3 PEP and 0.2 mol m^–3 HCO₃, and large Ki= 110 mol m^-3 HCO³. In fleshy fruit, chlorophyll and chloroplasts are unevenly distributed; they resemble the C₃ sun-type and arc concentrated in the perivascular tissue, with smaller chloroplasts, fewer grana per chloroplast and a larger degree of vacuolation than commonly found in a leaf of the same species. Fruit photosynthesis often compensates for respiratory CO₂ loss in the light. However, due to respiration in the dark, CO₂ loss is in excess of photosynthetic gain in the light, such that a continual loss of CO₂ was observed in the diurnal cycle and which is maintained throughout fruit development. The rate of CO₂ exchange decreases on a fresh weight or surface basis, but increases with fruit ontogeny on a per fruit basis, causing accumulation of several percent CO₂ in the internal cavity. Stomata are present in the outer epidermis of those fruits examined, but with a 10-to 100-fold lesser frequency than in the abaxial epidermis of leaf of the same species. The number of Stomata is set at anthesis and remained constant, while the stomatal frequency decreases as the fruit surface expands. Stomata are as sensitive as in leaves in the early stages of fruit development, but often are transformed into lenticels during fruit ontogeny, thereby decreasing the permeability of the outer epidermis. The discrepancy between the CO₂-concentrating mechanism provided by PEPC analogous to C₄/CAM Photosynthesis and the kinetics of fruit PEPC, characteristic of C₃/non-autotrophic tissue, suggests the definition of a new type of ‘fruit photosynthesis’ rather than its categorization within an existing type.     

Effects of Various Phytoimmunocorrectors on Fruit and Soft Fruit Cultures

Catalase activity and induction of delayed chlorophyll fluorescence were shown to be the markers of the plant native state. The dependence of reaction of the plant to exogenous elicitors, stimulators or inhibitors of the defense system, on the age, cultivar and/or species was found. Prolonged effect of the treatment with phytoimmunocorrectors was observed. The necessity of careful choice of elicitors depending on the plant state was shown.     

番茄果实不同发育阶段香气成分组成及变化

以陕西杨凌地区主栽的番茄品种'金棚1号'为试验材料,通过固相微萃取和GC/MS联用技术,对番茄果实不同成熟阶段的香气成分及其组成变化进行了研究.结果表明,'金棚1号'番茄果实共检测到54种香气成分,主要成分为醛类、酸类、醇类、酮类、酯类、酚类等.在果实的不同发育阶段,香味组分及其含量差异较大.醛类物质在绿熟期相对含量较高,为45.87%,在半熟期、硬熟期、完熟期的相对含量分别为12.65%、16.62%、17.15%,其中C6醛在绿熟期占43.7%,完熟期占15.27%,为醛类物质的主要成分;酸类物质含量在4个发育时期中先上升后下降,在半熟期含量达到最高,为15.2%,在完熟期酸类物质含量下降,为6.93%;酮类物质在完熟期含量达到最大,为18.27%;在绿熟期检测到4种重要的番茄特征香气物质,半熟期检测到5种番茄特征香气物质,硬熟期和完熟期各检测到6种番茄特征香气物质.说明随着果实的成熟,特征香气物质种类增多.     

梨花序不同序位坐果对果实发育及品质的影响

以'黄花'、'砀山酥梨'和'丰水'梨为试材,在大蕾期选择不同花序疏花后进行人工授粉,研究梨花序不同序位坐果与果实发育及品质的关系.结果显示:(1)'黄花'、'砀山酥梨'和'丰水'果形指数、果实硬度均随坐果序位的升高而升高,石细胞含量随坐果序位的升高而减少,且3个品种均表现第1序位果石细胞含量最高,5～7序位果单果质量小.(2)'黄花'、 '砀山酥梨'、 '丰水'的可溶性糖含量最高分别为2～4、1～3、3～5序位果,Vc含量最高的分别是1～4、2～5、3～5序位果,(3)果柄粗度和果柄粗/长值随序位的升高而降低,果柄粗度与果实单果质量、果实纵横径及可溶性固形物含量呈正相关,与果实硬度呈负相关.研究表明,各品种最佳坐果部位为:'黄花'2～4序位,'砀山酥梨'2～3序位、'丰水'3～4序位,生产中多数梨品种疏果时建议以留第3序位果较为稳妥.     

香梨的果表突起和落果裂果与果实中内源激素之间的关系（简报）

6月初香梨落果中GA3、IAA含量高于发育正常的果实,ABA含量几无变化。7月底、8月初果实迅速膨大期间,无论裂果与否的果实中均未检出IAA,但裂果中GA3和ABA含量均高于而GA3／ABA则低于发育正常果0实。萼端突起部位的内源激素含量高于梨身。     

Fruit fly family fun

A recent comparative analysis of the sequenced genomes of 12 Drosophila species (Drosophila 12 Genomes Consortium, 2007; Stark et al., 2007) reveals a comprehensive picture of the evolution of small animal genomes and greatly improves computational predictions of functional elements in the D. melanogaster reference sequence.     

A Fruit Growth Model Dependent on Both Carbon Supply and Inherent Fruit Characteristics

A mathematical model of carbon accumulation by growing fruitis presented. The model implicitly incorporates the conceptsof sink activity and sink size but avoids the need to stipulatesink strength. In addition to sink activity and size, carbonaccumulation depends on characteristics such as photosynthesisand respiration of the fruit itself as well as carbon supplyvia the peduncle attachment. Simulations with prescribed limitationsof carbon supply show similar results to field observations.The proposed model coupled with a carbon distribution/supplymodel could simulate the growth of individual fruit within aheterogeneous canopy.Copyright 1999 Annals of Botany Company Fruit growth, model, carbon partitioning, source:sink, relative growth rate.     

Effect of Down-Regulation of Ethylene Biosynthesis on Fruit Flavor Complex in Apple Fruit

The role of ethylene in regulating sugar, acid, texture and volatile components of fruit quality was investigated in transgenic apple fruit modified in their capacity to synthesize endogenous ethylene. Fruit obtained from plants silenced for either ACS (ACC synthase; ACC-1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid) or ACO (ACC oxidase), key enzymes responsible for ethylene biosynthesis, expectedly showed reduced autocatalytic ethylene production. Ethylene suppressed fruits were significantly firmer than controls and displayed an increased shelf-life. No significant difference was observed in sugar or acid accumulation suggesting that sugar and acid composition and accumulation is not directly under ethylene control. Interestingly, a significant and dramatic suppression of the synthesis of volatile esters was observed in fruit silenced for ethylene. However, no significant suppression was observed for the aldehyde and alcohol precursors of these esters. Our results indicate that ethylene differentially regulates fruit quality components and the availability of these transgenic apple trees provides a unique resource to define the role of ethylene and other factors that regulate fruit development.     

皱皮木瓜果实发育后期品质变化及其成熟阶段的划分初探

以湖北长阳产皱皮木瓜为材料,测定果实发育后期果实鲜质量、果长、果径、果色、果实硬度以及果肉干物质量、可溶性糖含量、总酸含量和总黄酮含量等品质指标的动态变化,划分不同成熟阶段,为判断果实适宜采收期、实现优质生产提供理论参考。结果表明:(1)皱皮木瓜果实发育后期果实鲜质量、果长、果径、果肉干物质量和可溶性糖含量均呈现上升趋势;果色由绿色、黄绿色渐变为淡黄色到黄色;果实硬度、果肉总酸和总黄酮含量呈先上升后下降趋势。(2)各品质指标快速变化的时间区域存在差异,果实鲜质量在花后105~150d增加较快,果色在150d后逐渐变黄,果实硬度在花后135~165d快速下降,果肉总酸、总黄酮含量则在花后105~120d快速增加至峰值。(3)根据主成分分析结果和各品质指标的变化特点,可初步将皱皮木瓜果实发育后期划分为未成熟(花后105d之前)、早期成熟(花后120~150d)和成熟(花后165~180d)3个阶段。研究表明,随着果实成熟度的提高,皱皮木瓜果实鲜质量、果色、果肉干物质量、可溶性糖含量等指标不断升高,果实硬度逐渐下降,其食用加工品质不断提升,而在早期成熟阶段(花后120~150d)果实的药用品质则相对较高。     

白沙枇杷果实发育、果实水势及与裂果关系研究

对生长在山坡地6年生白沙枇杷(Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.)的裂果与果实发育、可溶性糖含量、土壤相对含水量及果实水势关系进行了研究,并探讨了覆盖地膜、断根和果实套袋技术对预防裂果的效果。结果表明,随着白沙枇杷果实的发育,果形指数变小;临近成熟期,果实的可溶性糖含量最高,土壤相对含水量增加,同时果实水势也升高。模拟大雨后,果实水势与裂果率呈正相关,相关系数R=0.941。这说明白沙枇杷临近成熟时,果实内积累了大量的可溶性糖等高渗透物质,从高含水量的土壤中大量吸收水分,使果实水势升高,导致裂果。以覆盖地膜、断根和果实套袋组合的技术预防裂果的效果最好,其中覆盖地膜和断根对预防裂果的贡献较大。     

果实开裂研究进展

裂果是果实中普遍发生的一种生理性病害,如番茄、甜樱桃、苹果、枣、石榴、荔枝等均易开裂,这会造成巨大的经济损失和农业资源浪费。裂果是由多种因素综合导致,内因主要为遗传和果实的自身特性,如果实大小、形状、生长速度、含水量、果皮特性、果实开裂相关基因表达情况等;外因主要为生长环境条件,如温度、光照、降水等,以及栽培管理方式,如灌溉、防晒、矿物质和生长调节剂的施用等。文中从以上方面对果实开裂的研究进展进行综述,以期为裂果机理的进一步研究和裂果的防控提供参考。     

Fruit thinning of peach trees

The present review deals with the importance of fruit thinning in peach.The date of treatment, the severity and the criteria underlying the practiceare discussed. Methods of fruit thinning are described, with particularemphasis on the use of chemical treatment as an alternative to handthinning. Strategies for chemical thinning are advanced.     

Experiments on Banana Fruit Development

A number of synthetic auxins and auxin-antagonists were appliedin lanolin emulsions to young banana fruits and their effectson fruit development and seed fertility estimated. Auxins stimulatedthe formation of edible pulp in both seedy and parthenocarpicbananas and induced varying degrees of seed sterility. Of theauxin antagonists tried, coumarin (contrary to a mistaken earlierreport) stimulated parthenocarpy and induced seed sterility,three others were not or but slightly active, and thiourea markedlyinhibited parthenocarpy. Study of the relation between sizeof mature fruit and seed content indicates that developing seedsstimulate the growth of pulp and that the amount of stimulationis roughly proportional to the level of parthenocarpy. Fruitdevelopment in the banana seems to fit in with Luckwill's generalscheme of dual hormonal stimulus.     

Physiological Mechanisms Underlying Fruit Sunburn

Sunburn is a physiological disorder that can be observed in fruits of several crops growing in areas with warm climates, as a result of photodamage due to an excess of heat and/or light irradiance (visible and ultraviolet light). The main cause is thought to be an increase in reactive oxygen species production which causes oxidative damage due to the incapacity of the fruit to recover from stress. This can result in a characteristic morphological and structural phenotype unacceptable to consumers, leading to severe losses in productivity for farmers. Fruits have a great array of mechanisms to mitigate or reduce reactive oxygen species production and the inactivation of photosynthetic apparatus, such as enhanced xanthophyll cycle-dependent energy dissipation, accumulation of photoprotective pigments and heat-shock proteins, and the biosynthesis of antioxidants, among others. Nevertheless, these mechanisms become inefficient when the stress factors altering the fruit surface exceed a certain threshold (of both duration and intensity). Although this disorder has been studied in detail and previous efforts have provided significant advances in understanding the underlying mechanisms causing sunburn in a number of fruits, further research is still needed. This will undoubtedly provide new approaches and tools for improving current mitigation strategies.