Pathogens pulling the strings: Effectors manipulating salicylic acid and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in plants

During evolution, plants have developed sophisticated ways to cope with different biotic and abiotic stresses. Phytohormones and secondary metabolites are known to play pivotal roles in defence responses against invading pathogens. One of the key hormones involved in plant immunity is salicylic acid (SA), of which the role in plant defence is well established and documented. Plants produce an array of secondary metabolites categorized in different classes, with the phenylpropanoids as major players in plant immunity. Both SA and phenylpropanoids are needed for an effective immune response by the plant. To successfully infect the host, pathogens secrete proteins, called effectors, into the plant tissue to lower defence. Secreted effectors can interfere with several metabolic or signalling pathways in the host to facilitate infection. In this review, we will focus on the different strategies pathogens have developed to affect the levels of SA and phenylpropanoids to increase plant susceptibility.     

Glycosyltransferase Family 43 Is Also Found in Early Eukaryotes and Has Three Subfamilies in Charophycean Green Algae

The glycosyltransferase family 43 (GT43) has been suggested to be involved in the synthesis of xylans in plant cell walls and proteoglycans in animals. Very recently GT43 family was also found in Charophycean green algae (CGA), the closest relatives of extant land plants. Here we present evidence that non-plant and non-animal early eukaryotes such as fungi, Haptophyceae, Choanoflagellida, Ichthyosporea and Haptophyceae also have GT43-like genes, which are phylogenetically close to animal GT43 genes. By mining RNA sequencing data (RNA-Seq) of selected plants, we showed that CGA have evolved three major groups of GT43 genes, one orthologous to IRX14 (IRREGULAR XYLEM14), one orthologous to IRX9/IRX9L and the third one ancestral to all land plant GT43 genes. We confirmed that land plant GT43 has two major clades A and B, while in angiosperms, clade A further evolved into three subclades and the expression and motif pattern of A3 (containing IRX9) are fairly different from the other two clades likely due to rapid evolution. Our in-depth sequence analysis contributed to our overall understanding of the early evolution of GT43 family and could serve as an example for the study of other plant cell wall-related enzyme families.     

Analysis of differentially expressed genes in abiotic stress response and their role in signal transduction pathways

The study of abiotic stress response of plants is important because they have to cope with environmental changes to survive. The plant genomes have evolved to meet environmental challenges. Salt, temperature, and drought are the main abiotic stresses. The tolerance and response to stress vary differently in plants. The idea was to analyze the genes showing differential expression under abiotic stresses. There are many pathways connecting the perception of external stimuli to cellular responses. In plants, these pathways play an important role in the transduction of abiotic stresses. In the present study, the gene expression data have been analyzed for their involvement in different steps of signaling pathways. The conserved genes were analyzed for their role in each pathway. The functional annotations of these genes and their response under abiotic stresses in other plant species were also studied. The enzymes of signal pathways, showing similarity with conserved genes, were analyzed for their role in different abiotic stresses. Our findings will help to understand the expression of genes in response to various abiotic stresses. These genes may be used to study the response of different abiotic stresses in other plant species and the molecular basis of stress tolerance.     

Rapid evolutionary trade-offs between resistance to herbivory and tolerance to abiotic stress in an invasive plant

Release from enemies can lead to rapid evolution in invasive plants, including reduced metabolic investment in defence. Conversely, reassociation with enemies leads to renewed evolution of defence, but the potential costs of this evolution are poorly documented. We report increased resistance of the invader Ambrosia artemisiifolia after reassociation with a coevolved specialist herbivore, and that this increase corresponds with reduced abiotic stress tolerance. Herbivore resistance was higher, but drought tolerance was lower in plants from populations with a longer reassociation history, and this corresponded with changes in phenylpropanoids involved in insect resistance and abiotic stress tolerance. These changes were corroborated by shifts in the expression of underlying biosynthetic genes and plant anti-oxidants. Together, our findings suggest rapid evolution of plant traits after reassociation with coevolved enemies, resulting in genetically based shifts in investment between abiotic and biotic stress responses, providing insights into co-evolution, plant invasion and biological control.     

植物果聚糖的代谢途径及其在植物抗逆中的功能研究进展

植物果聚糖是一类重要的碳水化合物和渗透调节物质,可以提高植物的抗逆性。目前对植物果聚糖代谢酶基因的研究较多,主要包括相关基因的克隆、表达和利用基因工程技术将果聚糖相关代谢基因转入植物中。该文主要介绍了果聚糖的分布、种类、代谢途径及相关基因的克隆和表达,重点阐述了果聚糖在植物抗逆中的作用及其分子生物学研究进展。     

Ectopic expression of C 4 photosynthetic pathway genes improves carbon assimilation and alleviate stress tolerance for future climate change

Alteration in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and other environmental factors are the significant cues of global climate change. Environmental factors affect the most fundamental biological process including photosynthesis and different metabolic pathways. The feeding of the rapidly growing world population is another challenge which imposes pressure to improve productivity and quality of the existing crops. C4 plants are considered the most productive, containing lower photorespiration, and higher water-use & N-assimilation efficiencies, compared to C3 plants. Besides, the C4-photosynthetic genes not only play an important role in carbon assimilation but also modulate abiotic stresses. In this review, fundamental three metabolic processes (C4, C3, and CAM) of carbon dioxide assimilation, the evolution of C4-photosynthetic genes, effect of elevated CO2 on photosynthesis, and overexpression of C4-photosynthetic genes for higher photosynthesis were discussed. Kranz-anatomy is considered an essential prerequisite for the terrestrial C4 carbon assimilation, but single-celled C4 plant species changed this well-established paradigm. C4 plants are insensitive to an elevated CO2 stress condition but performed better under stress conditions. Overexpression of essential C4-photosynthetic genes such as PEPC, PPDK, and NADP-ME in C3 plants like Arabidopsis, tobacco, rice, wheat, and potato not only improved photosynthesis but also provided tolerance to various environmental stresses, especially drought. The review provides useful information for sustainable productivity and yield under elevated CO2 environment, which to be explored further for CO2 assimilation and also abiotic stress tolerance. Additionally, it provides a better understanding to explore C4-photosynthetic gene(s) to cope with global warming and prospective adverse climatic changes.     

Three rings for the evolution of plastid shape: a tale of land plant FtsZ

Nuclear-encoded plant FtsZ genes are derived from endosymbiotic gene transfer of cyanobacteria-like genes. The green lineage (Chloroplastida) and red lineage (Rhodophyta) feature FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 or FtsZB and FtsZA, respectively, which are involved in plastid division. These two proteins show slight differences and seem to heteropolymerize to build the essential inner plastid division ring. A third gene, encoding FtsZ3, is present in glaucophyte and charophyte algae, as well as in land plants except ferns and angiosperms. This gene was probably present in the last common ancestor of the organisms united by having a primary plastid (Archaeplastida) and was lost during vascular plant evolution as well as in the red and green algae. The presence/absence pattern of FtsZ3 mirrors that of a full set of Mur genes and the peptidoglycan wall encoded by them. Based on these findings, we discuss a role for FtsZ3 in the establishment or maintenance of plastid peptidoglycan shells.     

The mitochondrial genome of Chara vulgaris: insights into the mitochondrial DNA architecture of the last common ancestor of green algae and land plants

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has undergone radical changes during the evolution of green plants, yet little is known about the dynamics of mtDNA evolution in this phylum. Land plant mtDNAs differ from the few green algal mtDNAs that have been analyzed to date by their expanded size, long spacers, and diversity of introns. We have determined the mtDNA sequence of Chara vulgaris (Charophyceae), a green alga belonging to the charophycean order (Charales) that is thought to be the most closely related alga to land plants. This 67,737-bp mtDNA sequence, displaying 68 conserved genes and 27 introns, was compared with those of three angiosperms, the bryophyte Marchantia polymorpha, the charophycean alga Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Coleochaetales), and the green alga Mesostigma viride. Despite important differences in size and intron composition, Chara mtDNA strikingly resembles Marchantia mtDNA; for instance, all except 9 of 68 conserved genes lie within blocks of colinear sequences. Overall, our genome comparisons and phylogenetic analyses provide unequivocal support for a sister-group relationship between the Charales and the land plants. Only four introns in land plant mtDNAs appear to have been inherited vertically from a charalean algar ancestor. We infer that the common ancestor of green algae and land plants harbored a tightly packed, gene-rich, and relatively intron-poor mitochondrial genome. The group II introns in this ancestral genome appear to have spread to new mtDNA sites during the evolution of bryophytes and charalean green algae, accounting for part of the intron diversity found in Chara and land plant mitochondria.     

Improvement of plant abiotic stress tolerance through modulation of the polyamine pathway

Polyamines(mainly putrescine(Put),spermidine(Spd),and spermine(Spm))have been widely found in a range of physiological processes and in almost all diverse environmental stresses.In various plant species,abiotic stresses modulated the accumulation of polyamines and related gene expression.Studies using loss-of-function mutants and transgenic overexpression plants modulating polyamine metabolic pathways confirmed protective roles of polyamines during plant abiotic stress responses,and indicated the possibility to improve plant tolerance through genetic manipulation of the polyamine pathway.Additionally,putative mechanisms of polyamines involved in plant abiotic stress tolerance were thoroughly discussed and crosstalks among polyamine,abscisic acid,and nitric oxide in plant responses to abiotic stress were emphasized.Special attention was paid to the interaction between polyamine and reactive oxygen species,ion channels,amino acid and carbon metabolism,and other adaptive responses.Further studies are needed to elucidate the polyamine signaling pathway,especially polyamine-regulated downstream targets and the connections between polyamines and other stress responsive molecules.     

植物苯丙烷代谢途径

众所周知,固着生长的植物经常受到环境中各种生物和非生物胁迫的威胁。所以在漫长的进化过程中,植物必须将多样的环境信号整合到其发育过程中,以实现适应性形态的发生和代谢途径的精确调控,最终使植物完成整个生长周期。研究显示,苯丙烷代谢作为植物重要的次级代谢途径之一,其代谢产物,例如木质素、孢粉素、花青素和有机酸等,在调控植物适应性生长的过程中发挥着重要功能。特别是在药用植物中,苯丙烷代谢还与众多药用活性成分的合成息息相关,几乎所有包含苯丙烷骨架的天然药效成分均由苯丙烷代谢途径直接或间接合成,例如黄酮类、萜类和酚类等。此外,经苯丙烷代谢途径产生的一些次级代谢产物还能由植物根系外泌到周际土壤中,通过改变根系微生物的菌群生态,而影响植物生长和抵抗生物或非生物胁迫的能力。同时,苯丙烷代谢介导的这种植物-微生物互作也与药用植物的道地品质密不可分。本文综述了近年来植物苯丙烷代谢途径的最新研究进展,重点对该代谢途径中代谢产物的生理功能及表达调控机制进行了介绍,以期更深入地理解药用植物苯丙烷代谢与药材性状之间的潜在关系,旨在指导优良中草药的遗传育种,以进一步促进我国中医药事业的蓬勃发展。     

植物中DREBs类转录因子及其在非生物胁迫中的作用

低温、干旱、高盐等非生物胁迫能够严重影响植物的生长及作物的产量。最近发现了许多调控多种与逆境相关基因表达的转录因子, 其中DREBs类转录因子能够通过与含有DRE/CRT顺式作用元件的抗逆相关基因启动子区相互作用, 进而调控一系列抗逆基因的表达, 使植物品质得到综合改良从而提高植物对非生物胁迫耐受力。文章通过对DREBs的结构、表达调控、作用方式及机理进行总结, 并结合其在植物胁迫信号通路中的作用以及提高转基因植株胁迫耐受性的最新研究成果加以综述, 并对其在农业生产中的应用前景进行展望。     

查尔酮合成酶基因

查尔酮合成酶基因是苯丙氨酸代谢途径中的关键基因,在类黄酮类物质合成中扮演着重要的角色,调控着色素合成、防御反应、植物育性等生理生化过程,对植物的生长发育起着至关重要的作用。现对查尔酮合成酶在苯丙氨酸代谢途径中的地位、基因表达特性、基因功能以及基因进化等方面的进展做一介绍。     

Alfalfa Cellulose Synthase Gene Expression under Abiotic Stress: A Hitchhiker’s Guide to RT-qPCR Normalization

Abiotic stress represents a serious threat affecting both plant fitness and productivity. One of the promptest responses that plants trigger following abiotic stress is the differential expression of key genes, which enable to face the adverse conditions. It is accepted and shown that the cell wall senses and broadcasts the stress signal to the interior of the cell, by triggering a cascade of reactions leading to resistance. Therefore the study of wall-related genes is particularly relevant to understand the metabolic remodeling triggered by plants in response to exogenous stresses. Despite the agricultural and economical relevance of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), no study, to our knowledge, has addressed specifically the wall-related gene expression changes in response to exogenous stresses in this important crop, by monitoring the dynamics of wall biosynthetic gene expression. We here identify and analyze the expression profiles of nine cellulose synthases, together with other wall-related genes, in stems of alfalfa plants subjected to different abiotic stresses (cold, heat, salt stress) at various time points (e.g. 0, 24, 72 and 96 h). We identify 2 main responses for specific groups of genes, i.e. a salt/heat-induced and a cold/heat-repressed group of genes. Prior to this analysis we identified appropriate reference genes for expression analyses in alfalfa, by evaluating the stability of 10 candidates across different tissues (namely leaves, stems, roots), under the different abiotic stresses and time points chosen. The results obtained confirm an active role played by the cell wall in response to exogenous stimuli and constitute a step forward in delineating the complex pathways regulating the response of plants to abiotic stresses.     

脯氨酸在植物生长和非生物胁迫耐受中的作用

脯氨酸是生物界分布最广的渗透保护物质之一,干旱、高盐、高温及重金属等非生物胁迫条件都会导致植物体内脯氨酸含量的增加,其作用是防止渗透胁迫对植物造成的伤害、清除自由基,还可以作为氮、碳以及NADPH的重要来源。近年来,在转化脯氨酸代谢相关基因提高植物胁迫抗性方面也取得了很大进展。本文概要介绍了脯氨酸在植物生长和耐受非生物胁迫中的作用、与植物脯氨酸累积有关的信号转导、胁迫条件下脯氨酸的吸收和器官间的运输途径,以及通过转基因技术过量表达脯氨酸提高植物胁迫耐性的代谢工程的进展。