X连锁凋亡抑制蛋白的功能及其在肿瘤中的作用

X连锁凋亡抑制蛋白(X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis,XIAP)是目前发现的最具特征性与作用最强的内源性凋亡抑制蛋白质.XIAP特征性结构是其BIR结构域和RING结构域,它们都是XIAP发挥抗凋亡作用的重要结构.多种内源性抑制蛋白质(XAF1、Smac和Omi)能通过不同的方式抑制XIA...     

大鼠脑缺血再灌注后Smac、XIAP和caspase-9表达及活血通络方的干预作用

目的：探讨大鼠脑缺血再灌注后线粒体通路第二种天冬氨酸特异性半胱氨酸蛋白酶激活物（Smac）、凋亡抑制蛋白（XIAP）和凋亡蛋白酶（caspase）-9的表达变化及活血通络方的干预作用机理。方法：将大鼠随机分成模型组、活血通络组,大脑中动脉栓塞再通法建立脑缺血再灌注模型。大鼠脑缺血再灌注6、12、24和48 h不同时间点进行神经功能评分,用免疫组化法检测Smac、XIAP和caspase-9阳性细胞数。结果：缺血再灌注后6 h模型组神经功能症状积分升高,缺血半暗带皮质内神经元凋亡增多,Smac、XIAP和caspase-9蛋白的表达亦有明显上升,再灌注12 h达高峰（P〈0.05,P〈0.01）,随后出现下降。活血通络方能显著降低神经功能症状积分,减少神经元凋亡,促进XIAP表达,下调Smac和caspase-9表达（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）。结论：脑缺血再灌注后脑组织Smac、XIAP和caspase-9蛋白的表达均明显增加,提示它们可能在脑缺血再灌注损伤中发挥重要作用,活血通络方可能通过促进XIAP并抑制Smac、caspase-9表达保护神经元及神经功能。     

神经酰胺以Caspase依赖和非依赖方式诱导线粒体凋亡蛋白释放

本研究探讨了外源性C2-神经酰胺诱导入结肠癌HT-29细胞凋亡中,线粒体膜间隙凋亡蛋白的释放机制．不同浓度C2-神经酰胺作用HT-29细胞,流式细胞仪检测线粒体膜电位（△ψm）,线粒体／细胞液分离试剂盒分离亚细胞成分,聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳检测细胞色素C（Cytc）、高温必需蛋白A2（HtrA2）、线粒体源性半胱天冬氨酸蛋白酶第二活化因子（Smac）、凋亡抑制蛋白（XtAP）和半胱天冬氨酸蛋白酶-3（Caspase-3）蛋白表达水平．实验结果显示25和50μmol／L C2-神经酰胺作用细胞6h,△ψm即开始下降（P〈0．05）,且环孢霉素能通过调节线粒体膜通透性转换孔抑制△ψm的下降．C2-神经酰胺对Cyt c,HtrA2和Smac总蛋白表达没有明显影响,但能诱导Cyt c,HtrA2和Smac从线粒体释放入细胞液中,并下调XIAP蛋白的表达及活化Caspase-3．在Caspase抑制剂存在下,C2-神经酰胺仍能诱导Cyt c和HtrA2从线粒体释放,但不能诱导Smac释放．因此认为C2-神经酰胺能通过线粒体凋亡通路诱导HT-29细胞凋亡,C2-神经酰胺诱导Cytc和HtrA2从线粒体的释放是Caspase非依赖性的,而Smac释放是Caspase依赖性的．     

杏仁核注射红藻氨酸诱导的边缘叶发作癫痫大鼠海马 Bad去磷酸化和Bcl-2表达上调

应用红藻氨酸(kainic acid,KA)诱导的人鼠边缘叶发作癫痫模型,检测Bad(Bcl-2-associated death protein)、14-3-3、磷酸化Bad、Bcl-XL和Bcl-2在癫痫人鼠海码神经元的表达。单侧杏仁核内注射KA诱导癫痫发作,持续记录脑电和局部脑血流(regional cerebral blood flow,r-CBF),发作1h后静脉注射30mg／kg安定终止发作,然后分别用cresyl violet染色和TUNEL染色观察海马神经元存活和凋亡的变化;用免疫荧光、Western blot和免疫沉淀俭测海马Bad、14-3-3、磷酸化Bad、Bcl-XL和Bcl-2的表达。结果表明,发作终止8h时出现TUNEL阳忡细胞,24h时达高峰;发作诱导Bad去磷酸化,去磷酸化的Bad与分了伴侣蛋F114-3-3解离,然后Bad与Bcl-XL结合：磷酸化Bad表达减少而Bcl-2表达增加;发作前后r-CBF无明显变化。以上结果提示,癫痫发作诱导Bad的去磷酸化和Bcl-2表达上调,Bad的上磷酸化可能具有损伤作用,而Bcl-2的表达上调则对癫痫神经元损伤具有保护作用,但与脑缺血无关。     

低温保存诱导大鼠心肌细胞Smac／DIABLO蛋白表达的动态变化

目的：观察大鼠供心不同时程低温保存后线粒体Smac／DIABLO蛋白表达的差异。方法：根据不同的低温保存时程,SD大鼠随机分5组（n=8）。采用Langendorff离体鼠心灌注法停搏大鼠心脏,检测心脏在4℃条件下celsior保存液中分别保存0、3、6、9、12h后,心肌细胞线粒体内超氧化物岐化酶（SOD）活性和丙二醛（MDA）含量的变化。并采用Westom blotting蛋白印迹分析法观察心肌细胞Smac／DIABLO蛋白表达情况,原位末端标记（TUNEL）染色法检测心肌细胞凋亡。结果：①随着低温保存时间的延长,心肌细胞线粒体内SOD活性随之降低,MDA含量随之升高,心肌细胞凋亡指数也逐渐增高。②随着低温保存时间的延长,Smac／DIABLO蛋白表达逐渐增多,至低温保存6h后最为显著,随后又逐渐减弱。结论：随着低温保存时间的延长,可能由于心肌细胞抗氧自由基的能力逐步减弱,致使诱导细胞凋亡的心肌线粒体Smac／DIABLO蛋白表达逐渐增强,心肌细胞凋亡逐渐增多。     

新的凋亡抑制因子Livin

Livin是新近发现的一个凋亡抑制因子,属于抑制细胞凋亡蛋白(inhibitor of apoptosis protein,IAP)家族的新成员,主要通过抑制胱天蛋白酶-3／-7／-9(caspase-3／-7／-9)的活性来阻断细胞凋亡过程。Livin特异地表达于胚胎发育组织和大多数实体瘤,正常成人的绝大多数组织中也有表达。Livin抑制细胞凋亡,与肿瘤的发生、发展及预后相关,有望成为肿瘤治疗的新靶点。     

灵芝多糖对AD模型大鼠海马组织Caspase-3和FasL表达的影响

目的研究灵芝多糖（GLP）对阿尔茨海默病（AD）大鼠海马组织半胱氨酰天冬氨酸特异性蛋白静3（caspase-3）和FasL基因以及空间学习记忆能力的影响。方法双侧海马内一次性注射淀粉样多肽25-35片段（Aβ25—35）制作大鼠AD模型,治疗组24h后腹腔注射灵芝多糖水溶液,1周后进行Morris水迷宫检测大鼠空间学习记忆能力变化。采用免疫组织化学法和逆转录-聚合酶链式反应法（RT-PCR）分别检测大鼠海马组织caspase-3蛋白的表达量和FasL基因的表达,以及灵芝多糖对上述各指标的影响。结果灵芝多糖能明显改善AD模型大鼠低下的空间学习记忆能力。显著降低模型大鼠海马组织caspase-3和FasL的表达,而且灵芝多糖能明显改善模型大鼠脑组织海马CAI区神经元的退行性变化。结论灵芝多糖能降低海马组织内FasL和caspase-3表达量,改善海马CAI区神经元的退行性变化。对老年性痴呆大鼠学习记忆能力可能有增强和提高作用。     

XIAP在胰腺癌化疗耐药及治疗中的研究进展

X连锁的凋亡抑制蛋白(X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein,XIAP)是凋亡抑制蛋白家族中的一员,具有抗凋亡作用.研究发现XIAP在胰腺癌中呈高表达,并且能诱导胰腺癌细胞及组织对化疗耐药.通过在基因水平及蛋白水平降低XIAP的表达对胰腺癌的治疗具有重要意义.AEG 35156是针对XIAP的反义寡核苷酸分子,能够抑制胰腺癌细胞及组织生长.RNAi能够稳定下调胰腺癌细胞中XIAP水平,从而加强TRAIL诱导的细胞凋亡,并能提高胰腺癌细胞对化疗的敏感性.针对XIAP的小分化合物能够抑制XIAP的功能,释放被XIAP抑制的凋亡起始和效应分子以及XIAP抑制的其他促凋亡蛋白,提高多种肿瘤细胞的凋亡指数及对放化疗的敏感性.XAFl能抑制XIAP的抗凋亡作用.本文就XIAP在胰腺癌化疗耐药及治疗中的研究进展做一综述.     

美满霉素对癫痫大鼠海马神经元凋亡的影响

目的探讨美满霉素(minocycline,MC)对癫痫模型大鼠海马神经元的抗凋亡保护作用。方法将大鼠随机分为3组:生理盐水对照组(NS组),海人酸致痫组(KA组)和美满霉素预处理+海人酸组(MC+KA组)。以免疫组化法检测各组大鼠造模后2h、8h和24h海马部位Cytochrome C(CytC)免疫反应性。采用半定量RT-PCR和免疫组化法检测24h、48h caspase-3 mRNA和caspase-3表达情况。结果在KA致痫后2hCytC即开始有表达,8h达到高峰,24h表达减少,而MC预处理明显减弱此效应。caspase-3 mRNA的含量及caspase-3免疫反应性在24h时间点三组之间无明显差异,在48h时间点,KA组明显高于对照组(P0.05),MC预处理则明显拮抗KA诱导的caspase-3高表达。结论 KA致痫能诱导大鼠海马神经元凋亡,而MC能通过抑制凋亡途径对海马神经元发挥神经保护作用。     

Aβ1-42注射后大鼠海马神经元凋亡及线粒体凋亡途径相关蛋白表达变化的研究

目的:研究大鼠海马注射淀粉样β蛋白(β-amyloid,Aβ)后海马神经元凋亡及线粒体凋亡途径相关蛋白表达的变化,探讨其在阿尔茨海默病发病机制与病理改变中的作用.方法:SD大鼠36只随机分为正常对照组,生理盐水组和模型组.大鼠双侧海马注射Aβ1-42越建立AD模型,不同时间点Y迷宫进行行为学测试,TUNEL法检测海马神经元凋亡表达,western-blot检测海马细胞色素C、caspase-9蛋白表达.结果:模型组大鼠术后14天达到学会标准所需电击次数较生理盐水组和正常对照组增加(P<0.05),21天、28天增加更显著(P<0.01).模型组凋亡细胞数较正常对照组、生理盐水组明显增多(P<0.01).模型组大鼠海马细胞色素C与caspase-9蛋白表达明显高于生理盐水组与正常对照组(P<0.05).结论:Aβ1-42>海马注射通过激活线粒体凋亡途径诱导海马神经元凋亡.引起大鼠学习记忆能力损害,在AD的发病机制与病理进程中发挥重要作用.     

Regulation of XIAP and Smac/DIABLO in the rat hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia

We investigated the expression of XIAP (X chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein) and Smac/DIABLO, a newly identified mitochondrial apoptogenig molecule in the hippocampus following transient global ischemia. Transient global ischemia produced by two-vessel occlusion triggers the delayed neuronal death of CA1 neurons in the hippocampus. We demonstrate that CA1 neuronal loss induced by ischemia (10 min) is preceded by a selective and marked elevation of catalytically active caspase-3 in these neurons, indicative of apoptosis. XIAP (X chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein) is a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) gene family that, in addition to suppressing cell death by inhibition of caspases, is involved in an increasing number of signalling cascades. The present study shows alterations in the levels of XIAP and of Smac/DIABLO (second mitochondrial activator of caspase) after cerebral ischemia. The protein levels of XIAP and the number of XIAP-positive cells were regulated by cerebral ischemia in a strictly time and region dependent manner. The largest change in XIAP-IR was observed in the CA1 sub field, which is the most vulnerable area of hippocampus. The mitochondrial expression level of Smac/DIABLO increased during reperfusion. Smac/DIABLO expression was associated with alteration of the XIAP levels and the appearance of activated form of caspase-3 within the hippocampus during reperfusion in spatial and temporal manners.     

Involvement of caspase-3-like protease in the mechanism of cell death following focally evoked limbic seizures

The cysteine protease caspase-3 may be involved in the mechanism of cell death following seizures. Using a rat model of focally evoked limbic epilepsy with continuous electroencephalography monitoring, we investigated seizure-induced changes in caspase-3 protein expression and processing, enzyme activity, and the in vivo effect of caspase-3 inhibition. Seizures were induced by intraamygdaloid injection of kainic acid (0.1 microg) and were terminated after 45 min by diazepam (30 mg/kg) administration. Animals were killed 0-72 h following diazepam administration. Levels of the 32-kDa proenzyme form of caspase-3 were unaffected by seizures. Levels of the 17-kDa cleaved (active) fragment of caspase-3 were almost undetectable in control brain, but were increased significantly at 4 and 24 h within ipsilateral hippocampus and cortex in seizure animals. Caspase-3-like protease activity was increased within the ipsilateral hippocampus at 8 and 24 h following seizures. Caspase-3 immunoreactivity was increased within the vulnerable ipsilateral CA3/CA4 subfield at 24 and 72 h following seizures and was associated predominantly, but not exclusively, with neurons exhibiting DNA fragmentation. The putatively selective caspase-3 inhibitor N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Asp(OMe)-Glu(OMe)-Val-Asp(OMe)-fluoromethyl ketone significantly improved neuronal survival bilaterally within the hippocampal CA3/CA4 subfields following seizures. Collectively, these data suggest that caspase-3 may play a significant role in the mechanism by which neurons die following seizures.     

Formation of the Apaf-1/cytochrome c complex precedes activation of caspase-9 during seizure-induced neuronal death.

In this study we examine the in vivo formation of the Apaf-1/cytochrome c complex and activation of caspase-9 following limbic seizures in the rat. Seizures were elicited by unilateral intraamygdala microinjection of kainic acid to induce death of CA3 neurons within the hippocampus of the rat. Apaf-1 was found to interact with cytochrome c within the injured hippocampus 0-24 h following seizures by co-immunoprecipitation analysis and immunohistochemistry demonstrated Apaf-1/cytochrome c co-localization. Cleavage of caspase-9 was detected approximately 4 h following seizure cessation within ipsilateral hippocampus and was accompanied by increased cleavage of the substrate Leu-Glu-His-Asp-p-nitroanilide (LEHDpNA) and subsequent strong caspase-9 immunoreactivity within neurons exhibiting DNA fragmentation. Finally, intracerebral infusion of z-LEHD-fluoromethyl ketone increased numbers of surviving CA3 neurons. These data suggest seizures induce formation of the Apaf-1/cytochrome c complex prior to caspase-9 activation and caspase-9 may be a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of brain injury associated with seizures.     

Smac3, a novel Smac/DIABLO splicing variant, attenuates the stability and apoptosis-inhibiting activity of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein

X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), the most potent member of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) family, plays a crucial role in the regulation of apoptosis. XIAP is structurally characterized by three baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR) domains that mediate binding to and inhibition of caspases and a RING domain that confers ubiquitin ligase activity. The caspase inhibitory activity of XIAP can be eliminated by the second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac)/direct IAP-binding protein with low pI (DIABLO) during apoptosis. Here we report the identification and characterization of a novel isoform of Smac/DIABLO named Smac3, which is generated by alternative splicing of exon 4. Smac3 contains an NH2-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence required for mitochondrial targeting of Smac3 and an IAP-binding motif essential for Smac3 binding to XIAP. Smac3 is released from mitochondria into the cytosol in response to apoptotic stimuli, where it interacts with the second and third BIR domains of XIAP. Smac3 disrupts processed caspase-9 binding to XIAP, promotes caspase-3 activation, and potentiates apoptosis. Strikingly, Smac3, but not Smac/DIABLO, accelerates XIAP auto-ubiquitination and destruction. Smac3-stimulated XIAP ubiquitination is contingent upon the physical association of XIAP with Smac3 and an intact RING domain of XIAP. Smac3-accelerated XIAP destabilization is, at least in part, attributed to its ability to enhance XIAP ubiquitination. Our study demonstrates that Smac3 is functionally additive to, but independent of, Smac/DIABLO.     

Mitochondrial fission leads to Smac/DIABLO release quenched by ARC

Apoptosis plays a critical role for the development of a variety of cardiac diseases. Cardiomyocytes are enriched in mitochondria, while mitochondrial fission can regulate apoptosis. The molecular mechanism governing cardiomyocyte apoptosis remain to be fully elucidated. Our results showed that Smac/DIABLO is necessary for apoptosis in cardiomyocytes, and it is released from mitochondria into cytosol in response to apoptotic stimulation. Smac/DIABLO release is a consequence of mitochondrial fission mediated by dynamin-related protein-1 (Drp1). Upon release Smac/DIABLO binds to X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), resulting in the activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3. Their activation is a prerequisite for the initiation of apoptosis because the administration of z-LEHD-fmk and z-DQMD-fmk, two relatively specific inhibitors for caspase-9, and caspase-3, respectively, could significantly attenuate apoptosis. Smac/DIABLO release could not be blocked by these caspase inhibitors, indicating that it is an event upstream of caspase activation. ARC (apoptosis repressor with caspase recruitment domain), an abundantly expressed apoptotic repressor in cardiomyocytes, could inhibit mitochondrial fission and Smac/DIABLO release. Our data reveal that Smac/DIABLO is a target of ARC in counteracting apoptosis.     

Role of XIAP in inhibiting cisplatin-induced caspase activation in non-small cell lung cancer cells: a small molecule Smac mimic sensitizes for chemotherapy-induced apoptosis by enhancing caspase-3 activation

X-linked IAP (XIAP) suppresses apoptosis by binding to initiator caspase-9 and effector caspases-3 and -7. Smac/DIABLO that is released from mitochondria during apoptosis can relieve its inhibitory activity. Here we investigated the role of XIAP in the previously found obstruction of chemotherapy-induced caspase-9 activation in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Endogenously expressed XIAP bound active forms of both caspase-9 and caspase-3. However, downregulation of XIAP using shRNA or disruption of XIAP/caspase-9 interaction using a small molecule Smac mimic were unable to significantly induce caspase-9 activity, indicating that despite a strong binding potential of XIAP to caspase-9 it is not a major determinant in blocking caspase-9 in NSCLC cells. Although unable to revert caspase-9 blockage, the Smac mimic was able to enhance cisplatin-induced apoptosis, which was accompanied by increased caspase-3 activity. Additionally, a more detailed analysis of caspase activation in response to cisplatin indicated a reverse order of activation, whereby caspase-3 cleaved caspase-9 yielding an inactive form. Our findings indicate that the use of small molecule Smac mimic, when combined with an apoptotic trigger, may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of NSCLC.     

Smac/DIABLO在过氧化氢所致C2C12肌原细胞凋亡中的作用

为探讨Smac/DIABLO在过氧化氢(H₂O₂）所致C₂C₁₂肌原细胞凋亡中的作用,采用Hoechst 33258染色,观察H₂O₂ (0.5 mmol/L)处理C₂C₁₂肌原细胞不同时间后,细胞核形态学改变并计算凋亡核百分率,DNA抽提及琼脂糖电泳观察凋亡特征性梯状带,利用细胞成分分离后蛋白质印迹分析H₂O₂是否导致Smac/DIABLO从线粒体释放,采用Caspase检测试剂盒及蛋白质印迹分析Caspase-3和Caspase-9的活化,转染Smac/DIABLO基因,观察Smac/DIABLO过表达对H₂O₂所致的C₂C₁₂肌原细胞凋亡的影响.结果表明:H₂O₂处理1 h后,Smac/DIABLO从C₂C₁₂肌原细胞线粒体释放入胞浆,2 h更明显;H₂O₂处理4 h后,Caspase-3和Caspase-9活化,12 h达高峰;H₂O₂处理24 h后,C₂C₁₂肌原细胞显示特征性的凋亡形态改变,凋亡核百分率明显升高,DNA电泳出现明显“梯状”条带.与单纯过氧化氢损伤组相比,Smac/DIABLO高表达的C₂C₁₂肌原细胞经过氧化氢损伤组的Caspase-3和Caspase-9的活化、凋亡核百分率的升高、“梯状”条带的出现均更明显.结果表明,H₂O₂可导致Smac/DIABLO从C₂C₁₂肌原细胞线粒体释放,促进Caspase-9和Caspase-3的活化而促进细胞凋亡的发生.     

X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis functions as ubiquitin ligase toward mature caspase-9 and cytosolic Smac/DIABLO

Members of the IAP (inhibitor of apoptosis) family function as anti-apoptotic proteins by binding directly to caspase-3, -7, and -9 to inhibit their activities. During apoptosis, the activities of IAPs are relieved by a second mitochondria-derived caspase activator, named Smac/DIABLO. Some IAPs have a C-terminal RING finger domain that has been identified as the essential motif for the activity of ubiquitin ligase (E3). Here we show that X-linked IAP (XIAP) mediates the polyubiquitination of caspase-9 and Smac. The large subunit of mature caspase-9 was polyubiquitinated by XIAP in vitro, while procaspase-9 was not. Furthermore, the polyubiquitinated form of caspase-9 accumulated in an XIAP-dependent manner in intact cells. The ubiquitination of caspase-9 was significantly inhibited in the presence of mature Smac, whereas XIAP was also found to promote the polyubiquitination of cytosolic Smac both in vitro and in intact cells. These ubiquitination reactions require the RING finger domain of XIAP. These findings suggest that XIAP functions as ubiquitin ligase toward mature caspase-9 and Smac to inhibit apoptosis.     

Smac/DIABLO在过氧化氢所致C2C12肌原细胞凋亡中的作用

为探讨Smac/DIABLO在过氧化氢 (H2 O2 )所致C2 C12 肌原细胞凋亡中的作用 ,采用Hoechst 3 3 2 58染色 ,观察H2 O2 (0 5mmol/L)处理C2 C12 肌原细胞不同时间后 ,细胞核形态学改变并计算凋亡核百分率 ,DNA抽提及琼脂糖电泳观察凋亡特征性梯状带 ,利用细胞成分分离后蛋白质印迹分析H2 O2 是否导致Smac/DIABLO从线粒体释放 ,采用Caspase检测试剂盒及蛋白质印迹分析Caspase 3和Caspase 9的活化 ,转染Smac/DIABLO基因 ,观察Smac/DIABLO过表达对H2 O2 所致的C2 C12 肌原细胞凋亡的影响 .结果表明 :H2 O2 处理 1h后 ,Smac/DIABLO从C2 C12 肌原细胞线粒体释放入胞浆 ,2h更明显 ;H2 O2 处理 4h后 ,Caspase 3和Caspase 9活化 ,12h达高峰 ;H2 O2 处理 2 4h后 ,C2 C12 肌原细胞显示特征性的凋亡形态改变 ,凋亡核百分率明显升高 ,DNA电泳出现明显“梯状”条带 .与单纯过氧化氢损伤组相比 ,Smac/DIABLO高表达的C2 C12 肌原细胞经过氧化氢损伤组的Caspase 3和Caspase 9的活化、凋亡核百分率的升高、“梯状”条带的出现均更明显 .结果表明 ,H2 O2 可导致Smac/DIABLO从C2 C12 肌原细胞线粒体释放 ,促进Caspase 9和Caspase 3的活化而促进细胞凋亡的发生