广东省水库微囊藻的产毒特征和ITS序列的遗传多样性分析

为了解广东省水库微囊藻的产毒特征和ITS 序列的遗传多样性,从广东省供水水库中分离得到28 株微囊藻(Microcystisspp.),对它们的产毒特征和15 株微囊藻的ITS 序列进行了分析.高效液相色谱(HPLC)和微囊藻毒素合成酶基因mcyE 的检测结果表明,广东省水库中的微囊藻以产毒藻株占优势,微囊藻毒素的主要类型为MC-RR.广东省15 株藻株的ITS 序列相似性大于93.2%,在用相邻法(NJ)构建的系统树上,不同形态的种和不同地理区域的藻株没有区分开,产毒和非产毒藻株没有形成独立分支.这说明微囊藻ITS 序列的遗传多样性较低,ITS 序列和mcyE 存在没有相关性,表型不能够反映藻株的进化关系.因此,有必要将藻类传统分类方法与分子方法结合起来对蓝藻进行重新分类.     

采用套式PCR检测水库产毒微囊藻

根据所测定的微囊藻毒素合成酶mcyB基因的部分核苷酸序列,设计并筛选出两对特异性引物,用于产毒微囊藻的套式PCR检测。套式PCR针对毒素基因的检测结果与ELISA针对微囊藻毒素的检测结果相一致,但灵敏度更高。套式PCR的检测下限达1—10个微囊藻细胞/反应。采用套式PCR对广东12个主要供水水库的247份水样进行了产毒微囊藻检测,共检出阳性水样82份,阳性率为33.2%。这些阳性水样分布于除深圳水库以外的其他11个水库;其中汤溪水库水样套式PCR检出阳性率最高,达67.4%,其水样一步PCR的检出阳性率亦达25.6%,值得引起水文部门重视,并进行进一步跟踪监测。     

一种快速检测微囊藻毒素mcyG基因的新技术——环介导恒温扩增

利用环介导恒温扩增(LAMP)技术,以微囊藻毒素(Microcystins,MCs)合成基因簇中的mcyG基因为靶序列,设计了1 套LAMP引物,建立了LAMP反应体系并进行灵敏度和特异性实验。结果表明mcyG基因的最低检测限为:24 cfu/mL,远低于常规PCR(Polymerase Chain Reaction)。整个检测过程仅需40 min,且可直接目测结果。特异性实验中, 13 株淡水常见水华蓝藻分属:色球藻属(Chroococcus)、念珠藻属(Nostoc)、鱼腥藻属(Anabaena)、束丝藻属(Aphanizomenon)、微囊藻属(Microcystis),其中10 株呈阳性反应, 3 株为阴性。在野外样品检测中,来自太湖与黄庆苗池塘的水样PCR检测显示阴性反应,而LAMP检测均呈阳性反应,提示此两处水样中可能含有产毒微囊藻,显示出了LAMP检测方法良好的野外检测和预警能力。综合上述,LAMP检测方法能够快速检测产微囊藻毒素的关键基因,且结果可视化。该方法简便、快捷、不依赖特殊检测设备,极具推广前景。     

鲢鱼可溶性谷胱甘肽S-转移酶(sGST)基因cDNA全序列与5′调控区的克隆与分析

淡水鱼类可溶性谷胱甘肽S-转移酶(sGST)在微囊藻毒素去毒代谢过程中具有独特的关键作用,因而也称为微囊藻毒素去毒酶.从淡水食毒藻鱼类鲢鱼(Hypophthalmichthysmolitrix)肝脏通过简并引物克隆微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因cDNA核心序列,应用5′RACE和3′RACE技术分别扩增该序列的5′末端和3′末端序列,最后通过序列拼接获得鲢鱼肝脏微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因cDNA全序列.序列分析结果表明,鲢鱼肝脏微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因cDNA全长920bp,其中5′-UTR长74bp,3′-UTR长174bp,编码区长672bp,编码223个氨基酸.应用基因组步行法,在鲢鱼克隆得到淡水鱼类微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因5′侧翼区878bp序列.与哺乳动物及海水鱼sGST基因不同,鲢鱼微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因的5′侧翼区,发现存在多个脂多糖反应元件(LPSRE),表明来源于毒藻的脂多糖可能对鲢鱼微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因表达有潜在调控作用.     

鲢鱼可溶性谷胱甘肽S-转移酶(sGST)基因cDNA全序列与5′调控区的克隆与分析

淡水鱼类可溶性谷胱甘肽S-转移酶(sGST)在微囊藻毒素去毒代谢过程中具有独特 的关键作用,因而也称为微囊藻毒素去毒酶. 从淡水食毒藻鱼类鲢鱼(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)肝脏通过简并引物克隆微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因cDNA核心序列,应用5′RACE和3′RACE技术分别扩增该序列的5′末端和3′末端序列,最后通过序列拼接获得鲢鱼肝脏微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因cDNA全序列. 序列分析结果表明,鲢鱼肝脏微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因cDNA全长920 bp,其中5′-UTR长74 bp,3′-UTR长174 bp,编码区长672 bp,编码223个氨基酸. 应用基因组步行法,在鲢鱼克隆得到淡水鱼类微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因5′侧翼区878 bp序列. 与哺乳动物及海水鱼sGST基因不同,鲢鱼微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因的5′侧翼区,发现存在多个脂多糖反应元件(LPSRE),表明来源于毒藻的脂多糖可能对鲢鱼微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因表达有潜在调控作用.     

黄曲霉菌aflR基因启动子序列变异与黄曲霉毒素产生相关联

为探讨黄曲霉菌aflR基因启动子序列变异与黄曲霉毒素产生的关系,收集黄曲霉菌、米曲霉菌和寄生曲霉菌若干株。在有利于黄曲霉毒素产生的条件下培养后,提取各菌株的总RNA,RT-PCR法检测aflR基因的mRNA表达水平;并应用ELISA法检测各菌株产生黄曲霉毒素B1的情况。提取各菌株的基因组DNA,PCR扩增aflR基因启动子序列并测序。应用基因分析软件将不产毒素的黄曲霉菌与产毒黄曲霉菌的aflR基因启动子序列进行比较,找出不产毒菌株aflR基因启动子序列的变异位点。ELISA法和RT-PCR法结果表明,产毒的黄曲霉菌菌株均有明显的aflR基因转录,而在2株不产毒的黄曲霉菌菌株中,一株aflR基因无转录,另一株仅有较低水平的转录。序列比较结果表明,不产毒黄曲霉菌菌株的aflR基因启动子序列存在如下共同变异位点:-90、-236、-253、-262、-282位。米曲霉菌产生黄曲霉毒素B1和aflR基因转录的检测均为阴性,并且其aflR基因启动子序列中存在与上述不产毒黄曲霉菌菌株相同的变异位点。寄生曲霉菌产生黄曲霉毒素B1和aflR基因转录的检测均呈阳性,并且其aflR基因启动子序列的上述5个位点与产毒黄曲霉菌完全一致。在不产毒素的黄曲霉菌aflR基因启动子序列中发现了5个共同变异位点,实验结果提示这些变异位点可能与黄曲霉毒素的产生有关。     

巢湖微囊藻产毒株的分离、保存及种属特异性鉴定

利用平板划线结合液体培养的方法从巢湖分离得到一个藻株,命名为Chaohu-1。甲醇粗提该藻株所产生的藻毒素(MCs),经固相萃取、HPLC检测,证实该藻株产生毒性最强的Microcystin-LR。藻细胞呈绿色球状,群体为无规则网状。全细胞PCR扩增藻蓝蛋白基因间隔序列(PC-IGS),结果与GenBank中已有的铜绿微囊藻属序列相似性达99%。综合形态学和分子生物学的分析结果,表明我们首次从巢湖分离得到1个产毒的铜绿微囊藻藻株。同时我们摸索出该藻株冻存及复苏方法,为藻株的长期保存及后续研究打下了基础。     

微囊藻毒素去毒酶转基因模型的构建

根据已克隆的鲢鱼(Hypophthalmichthysmolitrix)微囊藻毒素去毒酶cDNA全序列设计特异引物,利用PCR方法获得鲢鱼微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因编码区,将该编码区与绿色荧光蛋白连接,分别构建融合表达载体pEGFP-N1-sGST和双顺反子表达载体pIRES2-EGFP-sGST。利用脂质体转染法将融合表达载体pEGFP-N1-sGST转染Hela细胞,60h后检测到绿色荧光基因表达;通过显微注射,将双顺反子表达载体pIRES2-EGFP-sGST注入斑马鱼(Daniorerio)受精卵,获得了转鲢鱼微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因斑马鱼,从而构建了微囊藻毒素去毒酶转基因模型。上述2种转基因模型的成功构建为进一步研究鲢鱼、鳙鱼(Aristichthysnobilis)、罗非鱼(Oreochromisnilotica)等淡水鱼类微囊藻毒素去毒酶基因调控元件、去毒分子机理及研发转基因鲢鱼、鳙鱼、罗非鱼等微囊藻毒素高效生物去毒器奠定了基础。     

利用3对引物鉴定产毒和非产毒微囊藻

根据微囊藻毒素合成酶基因簇序列 ,合成了 3对引物epF/mb1R ,mcF/teR ,mcF/umR ,通过全细胞PCR的方法检测了 19种不同来源微囊藻产毒的情况。 3种引物对 15株产毒微囊藻中均可扩增到预期大小的片段 ,测序结果证明这些片段是微囊藻毒素合成酶基因片段。PCR反应结果与HPLC分析所得到的结果有良好的对应性。在此基础上 ,初步确定了 3对引物检测产毒微囊藻对细胞浓度要求的下限。与其它引物相比 ,3对引物的特异性强 ,扩增条带大小适中 ,便于观察     

淡水藻种库(FACHB)库藏产2-MIB蓝藻的鉴定及其产嗅特征研究

为认识产二甲基异莰醇(2-MIB)蓝藻的形态和产嗅特征,从国家水生生物种质资源库淡水藻种库中筛选出24株可产2-MIB藻株,描述了这些藻株的形态特征和生境分布。结合形态和16S rRNA基因分析对藻株进行物种鉴定复核,修订了部分库藏藻株物种名称,例如发现库藏产2-MIB的浮丝藻属种类应当被重新鉴定为拉氏拟浮丝藻或索状气丝藻。基于mic基因系统发育树分析,显示蓝藻mic基因形成5个分支。通过2-MIB含量检测发现,不同藻株间单个细胞总2-MIB含量为6—2549 fg/cell,其含量通常为拉氏拟浮丝藻>索状气丝藻>灰假鱼腥藻。研究提供了产2-MIB蓝藻的形态、分子、生态和产嗅特性等的基础数据,首次报道气丝藻、沙丝藻、苏打丝藻种类可产2-MIB,并在国内首次报道了产2-MIB的微鞘藻,为进一步研究产2-MIB蓝藻生理生态特性提供重要的实验材料和科学依据。     

Nontoxic strains of cyanobacteria are the result of major gene deletion events induced by a transposable element

Blooms that are formed by cyanobacteria consist of toxic and nontoxic strains. The mechanisms that result in the occurrence of nontoxic strains are enigmatic. All the nontoxic strains of the filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix that were isolated from 9 European countries were found to have lost 90% of a large microcystin synthetase (mcy) gene cluster that encoded the synthesis of the toxic peptide microcystin (MC). Those strains still contain the flanking regions of the mcy gene cluster along with remnants of the transposable elements that are found in between. The majority of the strains still contain a gene coding for a distinct thioesterase type II (mcyT), which is putatively involved in MC synthesis. The insertional inactivation of mcyT in an MC-producing strain resulted in the reduction of MC synthesis by 94 +/- 2% (1 standard deviation). Nontoxic strains that occur in shallow lakes throughout Europe form a monophyletic lineage. A second lineage consists of strains that contain the mcy gene cluster but differ in their photosynthetic pigment composition, which is due to the occurrence of strains that contain phycocyanin or large amounts of phycoerythrin in addition to phycocyanin. Strains containing phycoerythrin typically occur in deep-stratified lakes. The rare occurrence of gene cluster deletion, paired with the evolutionary diversification of the lineages of strains that lost or still contain the mcy gene cluster, needs to be invoked in order to explain the absence or dominance of toxic cyanobacteria in various habitats.     

Transposons inactivate biosynthesis of the nonribosomal peptide microcystin in naturally occurring Planktothrix spp

The filamentous cyanobacteria Planktothrix spp. occur in the temperate region of the Northern hemisphere. The red-pigmented Planktothrix rubescens bacteria occur in deep, physically stratified, and less eutrophic lakes. Planktothrix is a known producer of the toxic heptapeptide microcystin (MC), which is produced nonribosomally by a large enzyme complex consisting of peptide synthetases and polyketide synthases encoded by a total of nine genes (mcy genes). Planktothrix spp. differ in their cellular MC contents as well as the production of MC variants; however, the mechanisms favoring this diversity are not understood. Recently, the occurrence of Planktothrix strains containing all mcy genes but lacking MC has been reported. In this study, 29 such strains were analyzed to find out if mutations of the mcy genes lead to the inability to synthesize MC. Two deletions, spanning 400 bp (in mcyB; one strain) and 1,869 bp (in mcyHA; three strains), and three insertions (IS), spanning 1,429 bp (in mcyD; eight strains), 1,433 bp (in mcyEG; one strain), and 1,433 bp (in mcyA; one strain), were identified. Though found in different genes and different isolates and transcribed in opposite directions, IS were found to be identical and contained conserved domains assigned to transposable elements. Using mutation-specific primers, two insertions (in mcyD and mcyA) and one deletion (in mcyHA) were found regularly in populations of P. rubescens in different lakes. The results demonstrate for the first time that different mutations resulting in inactivation of MC synthesis do occur frequently and make up a stable proportion of the mcy gene pool in Planktothrix populations over several years.     

Variability of the microcystin synthetase gene cluster in the genus Planktothrix (Oscillatoriales, Cyanobacteria)

In populations of Planktothrix, microcystin-producers and non-producers, which are morphologically identical, coexist. In order to develop a basis for the reliable detection of microcystin producers in field samples with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based methods, we studied the presence and variability of eight regions of the mcy gene cluster in 46 Planktothrix strains, including both microcystin-producing and non-producing ones. PCR-amplification products for two mcy gene regions were also found in non-microcystin-producing strains, indicating the existence of natural mutants. PCR-products of the other regions studied were only detected in microcystin-producing strains. Two of these mcy-amplicons were variable in sequence and length. Four gene regions remained that were conserved and specific for microcystin-producing Planktothrix strains, and thus qualified to detect the respective chemotypes in environmental samples.     

Development of specific rRNA probes to distinguish between geographic clades of the Alexandrium tamarense species complex

The globally occurring Alexandrium tamarense/fundyense/catenellaspecies complex consists of toxic and non-toxic strains thatare morphologically difficult to distinguish. We developed fourspecific ribosomal RNA probes that can identify the entire speciescomplex, the strains of the toxic North American clade and thestrains of the two non-toxic clades from Western Europe andthe Mediterranean Sea by DNA dot blot and fluorescence in situhybridization. These probes are a first step for the developmentof an early warning system for the presence of A. tamarense.     

Possible implications of chytrid parasitism for population subdivision in freshwater cyanobacteria of the genus Planktothrix

Populations of the cyanobacterium Planktothrix comprise multiple coexisting oligopeptide chemotypes that can behave differently in nature. We tested whether this population subdivision can, in principle, be driven by parasitic chytrid fungi, which are almost neglected agents of Planktothrix mortality. Two chytrid strains, Chy-Lys2009 and Chy-Kol2008, were isolated from Planktothrix-dominated lakes in Norway. The two strains shared 98.2% and 86.2% of their 28S and internal transcribe spacer rRNA gene sequences, respectively. A phylogenetic analysis placed them in the order Rhizophydiales family Angulomycetaceae. Chy-Lys2009 and Chy-Kol2008 could completely lyse Planktothrix cultures within days, while they failed to infect other filamentous cyanobacteria. The effect on Planktothrix was chemotype dependent, and both chytrid strains showed distinct chemotype preferences. These findings identify chytrid fungi infecting Planktothrix as highly potent and specialized parasites which may exert strong selective pressure on their hosts. According to established hypotheses on host-parasite coevolution, parasitism with the above properties may result in subdivision of Planktothrix populations into coexisting chemotypes and periodic shifts in the relative Planktothrix chemotype composition. These predictions are in agreement with field observations. Moreover, a genetic analysis verified the co-occurrence of Chy-Lys2009 and Chy-Kol2008 or related chytrid strains along with distinct Planktothrix chemotypes in at least one water body. Our findings are consistent with a scenario where chytrid parasitism is one driving force of Planktothrix population subdivision, which in turn leads to polymorphism in parasitic chytrid fungi. Future studies should test the validity of this scenario under field conditions.     

Frequency of inhibitors of daphnid trypsin in the widely distributed cyanobacterial genus Planktothrix

Recent findings showed that inhibition of the digestive enzyme trypsin by cyanobacterial metabolites can result in the death of the microcrustacean Daphnia. Compounds that are active against daphnid trypsin can therefore be considered as potentially toxic to Daphnia. Here we reported on the frequency of such compounds in the widely distributed cyanobacterial genus Planktothrix. Of the 89 Planktothrix strains analysed, about 70% produced inhibitors of daphnid trypsin. The strains tested positive represented three common Planktothrix species and were isolated from diverse localities and geographical regions. Our findings suggest therefore that inhibitors of daphnid trypsin are common in Planktothrix and maybe other cyanobacterial genera. These compounds should therefore be considered in future studies on the chemical ecology of cyanobacteria.     

Grazing on colonial and filamentous, toxic and non-toxic cyanobacteria by the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha

Colony forming and toxic cyanobacteria form a problem in surfacewaters of shallow lakes, both for recreation and wildlife. Zebramussels, Dreissena polymorpha, have been employed to help torestore shallow lakes in the Netherlands, dominated by cyanobacteria,to their former clear state. Zebra mussels have been presentin these lakes since they were created in the 19th century bythe excavation of peat and are usually not considered to bean invasive species. Most grazing experiments using Dreissenahave been performed with uni-cellular phytoplankton laboratorystrains and information on grazing of larger phytoplankton taxahardly exists. To gain more insight in to whether D. polymorphais indeed able to decrease cyanobacteria in the phytoplankton,we therefore performed grazing experiments with zebra musselsand two species of cyanobacteria, that greatly differ in shape:colony forming strains of Microcystis aeruginosa and the filamentousspecies Planktothrix agardhii. For both species a toxic anda non-toxic strain was selected. We found that zebra musselscleared toxic Planktothrix at a higher rate than non-toxic Planktothrix,toxic or non-toxic Microcystis. Clearance rates between theother strains were not significantly different. Both phytoplanktonspecies, regardless of toxicity, size and shape, were foundin equal amounts (based on chlorophyll concentrations) in theexcreted products of the mussels (pseudofaeces). The resultsshow that zebra mussels are capable of removing colonial andfilamentous cyanobacteria from the water, regardless of whetherthe cyanobacteria are toxic or not. This implies that the musselsmay be used as a biofilter for the removal of harmful cyanobacterialblooms in shallow (Dutch) lakes where the mussels are alreadypresent and not a nuisance. Providing more suitable substratefor zebra mussel attachment may lead to appropriate mussel densitiescapable of filtering large quantities of cyanobacteria.     

Grazing of two toxic Planktothrix species by Daphnia pulicaria: potential for bloom control and transfer of microcystins

The role of zooplankton in the control of cyanobacterial bloomsand the transfer of cyanotoxins to higher trophic levels areof great importance to the management of water resources. Manystudies have focused on the cyanobacterium Microcystis, butfew have examined the interactions between zooplankton and filamentouscyanobacteria. In this study, we provide experimental evidencefor the potential grazing of two toxic strains of filamentouscyanobacteria, Planktothrix rubescens and P. agardhii, by Daphniapulicaria, and for transfer of toxins in the planktonic foodchain. We determined clearance rates (CRs) by adult and juvenileD. pulicaria of the two Planktothrix strains, Scenedesmus acutusand a mixture of S. acutus cells with P. rubescens culture filtrate.Filament lengths were analyzed, and microcystin (MCY) presencein Daphnia was assessed using the Protein Phosphatase-2A (PP-2A)Inhibition Assay. The two Planktothrix strains were equallygrazed by D. pulicaria, but at lower CRs than S. acutus. Potentialanti-grazer toxins in P. rubescens filtrate did not inhibitDaphnia grazing. Small P. rubescens (<100 µm) filamentswere preferentially grazed by adult D. pulicaria, suggestingtheir limited ability to control a Planktothrix population duringa bloom. Large quantities of MCYs were found in unstarved Daphniapreviously exposed to Planktothrix, whereas quantities weresignificantly smaller in individuals starved for 24 h beforepreservation. This indicated a potential for transfer of toxinsin the food chain by Daphnia, especially immediately after ingestionof toxic cyanobacteria.     

A type II restriction endonuclease of Streptococcus thermophilus ST117

Three separate sets of polymerase chain reaction primers were designed to specifically detect the presence of a toxin A gene fragment, a toxin B gene fragment, and the entire toxin B gene. In addition toxin gene fragments that were amplified from well characterized toxic strains were tagged fluorescently and used as hybridization probes to screen C. difficile strains. A survey of 37 toxic strains and 10 non-toxic strains demonstrated that toxic strains normally contain the genetic composition for toxin A and toxin B simultaneously; whereas, non-toxic strains typically did not contain detectable toxin determinants. The only exception found was strain 39, which had the genetic composition for toxins A and B, but was not cytotoxic under the conditions tested.     

Biocide gene(s) and biocidal activity in different strains of Bacillus sphaericus. Expression of the gene(s) in E. coli maxicells

Summary The recently cloned biocidal determinant of the highly toxic strain of B. sphaericus 1593M (Ganesan et al. 1983) was used as probe to investigate homologous sequences in different toxic and non-toxic strains of B. sphaericus. It was found that the potent strains we have analysed are characterised by the presence of DNA sequences (6.6, 6.4, 5.8, 1.6, 1.3 and 0.6 Kb) not found in the non-toxic strains. These results further show that one of the two weakly toxic strains analysed presents a hybridisation pattern completely different from that observed with the highly potent strains of B. sphaericus. When the DNA of the two non-toxic strains was analysed, SSII-I failed to hybridise to the probe and Rem4 exhibited mainly one hybridisable sequence of 2.3 Kb not detectable in the toxic strains.No region of homology to the probe was found in the DNA of two strains of B. thuringiensis (var. berliner and var. israeliensis) analysed.By dot blot hybridisation experiments it was estimated that the larvicidal determinant might be present in about one to three copies per genome.With the use of E. coli maxicells we have shown further that the toxin gene(s) encoded four polypeptides with molecular weights of 21, 19, 15, and 12 Kd. The significance of these findings is discussed.