Dealing with scarce data to understand how environmental gradients and propagule pressure shape fine‐scale alien distribution patterns on coastal dunes

Questions: On sandy coastal habitats, factors related to substrate and to wind action vary along the sea–inland ecotone, forming a marked directional disturbance and stress gradient. Further, input of propagules of alien plant species associated to touristic exploitation and development is intense. This has contributed to establishment and spread of aliens in coastal systems. Records of alien species in databases of such heterogeneous landscapes remain scarce, posing a challenge for statistical modelling. We address this issue and attempt to shed light on the role of environmental stress/disturbance gradients and propagule pressure on invasibility of plant communities in these typical model systems. Location: Sandy coasts of Lazio (Central Italy). Methods: We proposed an innovative methodology to deal with low prevalence of alien occurrence in a data set and high cost of field‐based sampling by taking advantage, through predictive modelling, of the strong interrelation between vegetation and abiotic features in coastal dunes. We fitted generalized additive models to analyse (1) overall patterns of alien occurrence and spread and (2) specific patterns of the most common alien species recorded. Conclusion: Even in the presence of strong propagule pressure, variation in local abiotic conditions can explain differences in invasibility within a local environment, and intermediate levels of natural disturbance and stress offer the best conditions for spread of alien species. However, in our model system, propagule pressure is actually the main determinant of alien species occurrence and spread. We demonstrated that extending the information of environmental features measured in a subsample of vegetation plots through predictive modelling allows complex questions in invasion biology to be addressed without requiring disproportionate funding and sampling effort.     

Possible involvement of volatile compounds in the after-ripening of cocklebur seeds

The mechanism of emergence from primary dormancy, the process of after-ripening, in cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum) seeds was examined in relation to the involvement of volatile compounds and to the relative humidity (RH) in which the seeds were stored. The after-ripening of these seeds proceeds only at water contents between 7 and 14% which are conditioned under RHs of 33% to 53% and are identified with water-binding region II. After-ripening of cocklebur seeds occurred even in water-binding region I. imposed by 12% RH. when exposed to HCN gas during the storage period. Exposure of dormant seeds to acetaldehyde (ethanal) retarded after-ripening. even in water-binding region II. thus decreasing germinability. This decrease of germinability by ethanal was found also in the after-ripened seeds, suggesting that ethanal accelerates seed deterioration rather than retarding the after-ripening. The contents of ethanal. ethanal and HCN were high only in the dormant seeds held at 12% RH. Regardless of RH. a possible conversion of ethanal to ethanol. perhaps via alcohol dehydrogenase. was far larger in dormant than in non-dormant seeds. In contrast, the reverse conversion of ethanol to ethanal was more profound in non-dormant seeds. Pre-exposure of both types of seeds to HCN reduced the contents of both ethanal and ethanol at 12% RH. The contents of various adenylales including ATP in seed tissues were higher in dormant seeds stored at 12% RH than in non-dormant seeds after-ripened at 44% RH. It is suggested that emergence of cocklebur seeds from primary dormancy by HCN treatment at 12% RH may result from the reduction in the contents of ethanal via an unknown mechanism incurring the consumption of ATP. This implies involvement of volatile compound metabolism at the water-binding region II in the after-ripening process of cocklebur seeds.     

Bioherbicidal potential of a strain of Xanthomonas spp. for control of common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium)

Several isolates of a previously unreported bacterial pathogen were discovered on common cocklebur seedlings in Chicot County, AR and Washington County, MS. Diseased plants in nature exhibited angular-shaped leaf spotting symptoms on leaf margins and central leaf areas. The isolates were cultured from diseased leaf tissue and tentatively identified as Xanthomonas spp., and their virulence on common cocklebur seedlings compared. The most virulent isolate (LVA987) was used in studies to define disease progression on cocklebur seedlings and to carry out a host range evaluation on various weeds and crop plants. High virulence was found on common cocklebur > marestail (Conyza canadensis) > giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) ≥ and common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia). These results suggest this pathogen may be useful for the biological control of these important species of weeds. This is also highly relevant since all of these weeds have evolved resistance to one or more synthetic herbicides and are thus becoming more difficult to control with conventional herbicides.     

蒙古苍耳抑制坏死性凋亡(necroptosis)活性部位化学成分研究(Ⅰ)

苍耳(Xanthium strumarium)为民间传统药用植物，本课题组前期研究发现蒙古苍耳大孔树脂50%乙醇洗脱部位具有显著的抑制细胞坏死性凋亡(necroptosis)活性。为明确蒙古苍耳(X.mongolicum)的活性成分，活性部位采用反复硅胶柱色谱、Sephadex LH-20柱色谱、制备高效液相色谱、重结晶等多种方法进行分离和纯化，运用NMR、MS等波谱方法并结合文献数据对分离得到的化合物进行结构鉴定。结果表明：从该活性部位中分离得到14个化合物，分别鉴定为hydroxydihydrobovolide(1)、树莓酮(2)、水杨醇(3)、对羟基苯乙酮(4)、对羟基苯甲醛(5)、咖啡酸乙酯(6)、阿魏醛(7)、异东莨菪素(8)、3,3′-bis(3,4-dihydro-4-hydroxy-6-methoxy-2H-1-benzopyran)(9)、axillarin (10)、槲皮素(11)、(+)松脂素(12)、β-谷甾醇(13)和棕榈酸(14)。化合物1-4、7-10均为首次从苍耳中分离得到。     

Atmospheric CO2 enrichment alters energy assimilation, investment and allocation in Xanthium strumarium

Energy-use efficiency and energy assimilation, investment and allocation patterns are likely to influence plant growth responses to increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2]). Here, we describe the influence of elevated [CO2] on energetic properties as a mechanism of growth responses in Xanthium strumarium. Individuals of X. strumarium were grown at ambient or elevated [CO2] and harvested. Total biomass and energetic construction costs (CC) of leaves, stems, roots and fruits and percentage of total biomass and energy allocated to these components were determined. Photosynthetic energy-use efficiency (PEUE) was calculated as the ratio of total energy gained via photosynthetic activity (Atotal) to leaf CC. Elevated [CO2] increased leaf Atotal, but decreased CC per unit mass of leaves and roots. Consequently, X. strumarium individuals produced more leaf and root biomass at elevated [CO2] without increasing total energy investment in these structures (CCtotal). Whole-plant biomass was associated positively with PEUE. Whole-plant construction required 16.1% less energy than modeled whole-plant energy investment had CC not responded to increased [CO2]. As a physiological mechanism affecting growth, altered energetic properties could positively influence productivity of X. strumarium, and potentially other species, at elevated [CO2].     

No contribution of the pentose phosphate pathway in dormancy-breaking of cocklebur seeds

The role of the oxidative pentose phosphate (PP) pathway in the dormancy-breaking of cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum Wallr.) seeds was investigated. D-[1-¹⁴C]-glucose or D-[6-¹⁴C]-glucose was fed to dormant and non-dormant lower seeds or to their axial or cotyledonary segments which were imbibed for different durations, and C₆/C₁ ratios of respired ¹⁴CO₂ as an index of the PP pathway activity were calculated. Contrary to expectation, there was no significant difference in the C₆/C₁ ratios between the dormant and non-dormant seeds or segments during a water imbition period of 24 h, although the PP pathway actually operated already in an early stage of water imbibition. Also concerning the activities of G6PDH and 6PGDH, the key enzymes of this pathway, no difference between the dormant and non-dormant seeds was found. It was thus concluded that, unlike other seeds, there is no contribution of the PP pathway to the regulation of dormancy of the cocklebur seed.     

β-Glucosidase activities and HCN liberation in unimbibed and imbibed seeds, and the induction of cocklebur seed germination by cyanogenic glycosides

In many seed species, the major source of HCN evolved during water imbibition is cyanogenic glycosides. The present investigation was performed to elucidate the role of endogenous cyanogenic glycosides in the control of seed germination and to examine the involvment of β-glucosidase in this process. All seed species used here contained some activities of β-glucosidase already in the dry state before imbibition. in the decreasing order of Malus pumila, Daucus carota, Hordeum vulgare, Chenopodium album and so on. β-Gluosidase activity in upper and lower seeds of cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum Wallr.) decreased with imbibition, and in lower seeds the activity disappeared when they germinated. On the contrary, in caryopses of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Sasanishiki) β-glucosidase increased during imbibition, and this increase continued even after germination. β-Glucosidase in cocklebur seeds was more active in the axial than in the cotyledonary tissue. Amygdalin, prunasin and linamarin could all serve as substrattes for the β-glucosidase(s) from both cocklebur and rice. Amygdalin, prunasin and linamarin as well as KCN, were effective in stimulating the germination of upper cocklebur seeds. The seeds evolved much more free HCN gas when they were exposed to the cyanogenic glycosides than when the glycosides were absent. Moreover, the application of the cyanogenic glycosides or of KCN caused accumulation of bound HCN in the seeds. Carbon monoxide, which stimulated cocklebur seed germination only slightly, did not cause accumulation of bound HCN. We suggest that a balance between the cytochrome and the alternative respiration pathways, which is adequate for germination (Esashi et al. 1987. Plant Cell Physiol. 28: 141–150), may be brought about by the action of endogenous HCN; a large portion of which is liberated from cyanogenic glycosides via the action of β-glucosidase. In addition to the partial suppression of the cytochrome path and unlike carbon monoxide, the HCN thus produced may act to supply cyanide group(s) to unknown compounds necessary for germination.     

Presence of β-cyanoalanine synthase in unimbibed dry seeds and its activation by ethylene during pre-germination

Evolution of HCN from both rice ( Oryza sativa ) and cocklebur ( Xanthium pennsylvanicum ) seeds increased during a pre-germination period and preceded the evolution of (C₂H₄). These two species were adopted as the representatives of starchy and fatty seeds, respectively. Ethylene promotes seed germination of many species. However, HCN evolution declined abruptly when the radicles emerged and before the peak in C₂H₄ evolution. More-over, both rice and soybean ( Glycine max ) seeds showed some activity of β-cyanoalanine synthase (CAS, EC 4.4.1.9) even in the unimbibed dry state. The activities of CAS in the lower seed of cocklebur and in soybean seeds increased rapidly after emergence of the radicle. However, the CAS of rice seeds, with high activity in the dry state, exhibited a bimodal change, gradually decreasing until radicle emergence had occurred, but then increaing. It is thus likly that HCN evolution during initial imbibition may be derived from cyanogenic reserves and controlled by both pre-existing and subsequently-developing CAS. The exogenous application of C₂H₄ stimulated the activities of CAS in both rice and upper cocklebur seeds and reduced their cyanogen contents. Therefore, the decline of HCN evolution after germination seems to be due to the increased activities of CAS by endogenously produced C₂H₄.     

Possible mechanisms of afterripening in Xanthium seeds

Breaking dormancy in some seeds requires a period of dry storage. In the seeds of Xanthium pennsylvanicum Wallr., the process of afterripening proceeds optimally at water contents between 7 and 14%: this range of dehydration can be identified with water binding region 2, in which water is bound with low enthalpy. At water contents below 7%. Seeds remained primarily dormant over 3 years. Attempts to alter the afterripening with atmospheres of elevated nitrogen showed no effect. and with oxygen there was no consistent effect. There were no changes is osmotic value of the seed sap, or in its sugar or amino acid contents. We speculate that afterripening in Xanthium may involve some nonenxymatic reactions which remove substances which inhibit germination. Candidates for these reactions include the Amadori and Maillard reactions.