Patent portfolio-based indicators to evaluate the commercial benefits of national plant genetic resources

According to property rights theory, national plant genetic resources (PGRs) are sovereign properties rather than resources belonging to the common heritage of humankind. Consequently, provider states can claim compensation from users of their national PGRs, leading to the need for bilateral or multilateral agreements to share national PGRs' commercial benefits. However, as benefit-sharing agreements are made exante, estimating the potential profit is difficult. Thus, issues around asymmetric information about the commercial value of such resources have emerged. In this paper, we use a patent portfolio as a proxy to estimate the potential commercial benefits of national PGRs and propose new evaluation indicators. We propose a comprehensive evaluation process that covers constructing a patent portfolio for each PGR, establishing indicators in terms of marketability, technology, and exclusiveness, and assigning weights to the indicators using fuzzy analytic hierarchy. In addition, we illustrate this process using a case of Korean national PGRs based on the opinions of stakeholders and experts. This research is expected to help promote national PGR transactions with equitable access and benefit sharing agreements.     

Contingent valuation analysis of willingness to pay to reduce childhood obesity

Several recent surveys have asked Americans whether they support policies to reduce childhood obesity. There is reason for skepticism of such surveys because people are not confronted with the tax costs of such policies when they are asked whether they support them. This paper uses contingent valuation (CV), a method frequently used to estimate people's willingness to pay (WTP) for goods or services not transacted in markets, applied to unique survey data from New York State to estimate the willingness to pay to reduce childhood obesity. The willingness to pay data correlate in predictable ways with respondent characteristics. The mean WTP for a 50% reduction in childhood obesity is $46.41 (95% CI: $33.45, $59.15), which implies a total WTP by New York State residents of $690.6 million (95% CI: $497.7, $880.15), which is less than that implied by previous surveys that did not use CV methods but greater than current spending on policies to reduce childhood obesity and greater than the estimated savings in external costs. The findings provide policymakers with useful information about taxpayers' support for, and preferred budget for, anti-obesity policies.     

生态系统服务功能及其生态经济价值评价

生态系统服务功能是指生态系统与生态过程所形成及所维持的人类赖以生存的自然环境条件与效用。它不仅为人类提供了食品、医药及其它生产生活原料,更重要的是维持了人类赖以生存的生命支持系统,维持生命物质的生物地化循环与水文循环,维持生物物种与遗传多样性,净化环境,维持大气化学的平衡与稳定。人们逐步认识到,生态服务功能是人类生存与现代文明的基础。近年来生态系统服务功能的研究已引起了人们的广泛重视,生态学家、经济学家纷纷探讨生态系统服务功能的内涵与定量评价方法,并已成为当前生态学与生态经济学研究的前沿课题。本文拟系统地分析生态系统服务功能的研究进展与趋势,生态系统服务功能价值的评估方法,并探讨生态系统服务功能及其与可持续发展研究的关系.     

湿地生态系统服务、功能和价值评价研究进展

随着对湿地重要性认识的加深,湿地生态系统的服务价值越来越受到人们的重视.湿地生态系统服务价值评价的成果可为制定惩处破坏者及补偿损失者政策提供科学依据.本文在界定湿地生态系统服务、功能和价值之间关系的基础上,总结了当前湿地生态系统服务功能价值评价的方法和应用特点,主要包括市场价格法、生产函数法、机会成本法、影子工程法、生产力变化法、人力资本法、旅行费用法、享乐价值法、权变价值评估和生态价值法.讨论了影响评价结果的因素及相关研究中存在的问题,并对今后的发展前景进行展望.     

广东省森林生态系统服务功能

广东省森林生态系统的服务功能在保障了广东省的经济发展的同时带来了巨大的直接或间接经济效益。参考Costanza等人的分类方法与经济参数,采用物质量和价值量结合的评价方法,根据1999年广东省森林资源档案数据及1998年遥感数据,对广东省森林生态系统的林副产品及木材的产品价值和生态旅游、涵养水源、水土保持、净化空气、营养元素循环等5方面服务功能的总价值进行评估。结果表明,1999年广东森林系统总体服务价值达374.19亿元(以1999年人民币为基准),其中经济林提供的价值为5.93亿元,只占总值的1.58%。在12种林型中面积最大价值也最大的松林总值为101.05亿元,单位面积价值最高的是红树林为8.27万元/公顷·年。考虑到迄今对生态系统服务功能了解的局限性以及计算方法和参数的缺陷,得出的估计值应偏低于实际价值。     

An ecological-economic approach to the valuation of ecosystem services to support biodiversity policy. A case study for nitrogen retention by Mediterranean rivers and lakes

Several international initiatives have highlighted the need to prove the relevance of ecosystem services in monetary terms in order to make a comprehensive and compelling case for conservation of biodiversity. The different approaches and frameworks used so far have shown that there is no economic or monetary estimate of ecosystems or ecosystem services with absolute validity: any valuation exercise is always context-related and the theoretical rationale behind the applied valuation technique does matter. This study presents an approach for assessing ecosystem services in monetary terms to support conservation policies at the regional and continental scale. First we briefly review the foundation of environmental and ecological economics, second we explore the differences between economic models and the application of valuation techniques, third we try to pick the difference between the mainstream economic valuation approach and the translation of biophysical models’ outcomes in monetary terms. Then we present and discuss a methodology suitable for associating a monetary cost to ecosystem services when the purpose addresses conservation policies. In order to provide a contribution, we show a practical case study on water purification in the northern Mediterranean region.     

Applying the ecosystem services framework to pasture-based livestock farming systems in Europe

The concept of ‘Ecosystem Services’ (ES) focuses on the linkages between ecosystems, including agroecosystems, and human well-being, referring to all the benefits, direct and indirect, that people obtain from ecosystems. In this paper, we review the application of the ES framework to pasture-based livestock farming systems, which allows (1) regulating, supporting and cultural ES to be integrated at the same level with provisioning ES, and (2) the multiple trade-offs and synergies that exist among ES to be considered. Research on livestock farming has focused mostly on provisioning ES (meat, milk and fibre production), despite the fact that provisioning ES strongly depends on regulating and supporting ES for their existence. We first present an inventory of the non-provisioning ES (regulating, supporting and cultural) provided by pasture-based livestock systems in Europe. Next, we review the trade-offs between provisioning and non-provisioning ES at multiple scales and present an overview of the methodologies for assessing biophysical trade-offs. Third, we present non-biophysical (economical and socio-cultural) methodologies and applications for ES valuation. We conclude with some recommendations for policy design.     

Understanding social demand for sustainable nature conservation. The case of a protected natural space in South-Eastern Spain

The implementation of sustainable management plans for protected areas is one of the main challenges for public institutions. These plans involve public participation and the assessment of social benefits provided by these open spaces. This work proposes the use of choice experiments methodology for the evaluation of management alternatives for a protected area. The case study within this work is El Valle and Carrascoy Natural Park, which is included in the Natura 2000 Network. This Protected Natural Area (PNA) is located in a peri-urban area; thus, it combines high natural values and high anthropic pressure. A Choice Experiment (CE) was designed through consultation with the Park managers and technicians, and it was applied to a representative sample of the population within the Region of Murcia (South-Eastern Spain). CE allowed an estimation of the value of different management alternatives, classified according to the three main sustainability areas: social; economic; and, environmental. The results show population's demand for environmental management alternatives, such as protection of flora and fauna and promotion of ecotourism, as well as a rejection of quarrying in the PNA. The economic values estimated allow the proposal of a distribution of the annual budget of the PNA according to the social demand.     

Valuation methods within LCA - Where are the values?

It is generally recognised that the valuation in LCA requires political, ideological and/or ethical values (hence the term). These values, however, are seldom discussed, and this paper may he seen as an early attempt. One result is that not only the valuation weighting factors, but also the choice of valuation methodology and the choice of using a valuation weighting method at all, are influenced by fundamental ethical and ideological valuations. Since there is no societal consensus on these fundamental values, and never will be one in an open democratic society, there is no reason to expect consensus either on valuation weighting factors, or on the valuation method or even on the choice of using a valuation weighting method at all. Another result of the discussion on values is that the ethical and ideological valuations are often made implicitly in the choice of method, data, etc., thus making it difficult to discuss the values and the implications of different standpoints. Although this paper focus on the valuation methods within LCA, it is expected that much of the discussion and the conclusions are of relevance for other environmental management tools, e.g. Environmental Impact Assessment.