基于SSR标记的海带、裙带菜的遗传构成分析

旨在通过对配子体克隆和孢子体幼苗的初代筛选,以培育出纯度更高、性状更优良的海带与裙带菜品种。以11个海带与裙带菜克隆组合为材料,在筛选出区分亲本♀与♂的数对引物的基础上,对其子代与亲本的遗传构成进行了分析。试验中共选出13对能够区分11个组合亲本♀与亲本♂的SSR标记,分析结果显示,2013年育苗的48号组合中所有子代都是其亲本的后代,49号组合中只有1个子代是其亲本的后代;2014年育苗的22号组合中所有子代都是其亲本的后代;2015年育苗的海带与裙带菜杂交组合中,36号、38号、39号与41号杂交成功,其他组合未杂交成功;2016年育苗的59号组合中有7个子代与亲本无亲缘关系。分析这11个组合中所有个体与亲本的遗传构成发现:部分个体是其亲本的后代,部分个体遗传构成与亲本不一致。     

杂色山雀亲代喂食与子代乞食间的行为

在育雏期,晚成鸟的子代一般都是由双亲共同来抚育,子代为了更好地存活,会用自己的方式竞争获得更多的食物和更好的生存空间,同时亲代也会根据子代的乞食信号来分配食物。2011年3～7月采用针孔摄像技术录制了杂色山雀(Parus varius)育雏期巢内亲代与子代间的行为,统计了亲鸟站位、雏鸟站位、雏鸟乞食强度及亲鸟的喂食情况等数据。分析结果表明:(1)雌雄亲鸟在巢中的站位各有特点,雄鸟在整个育雏期都喜欢站在距离巢口较近的位置;雌鸟站位不太固定,前期离巢口相对较远,中期和后期离巢口相对较近;(2)雏鸟离亲鸟越近,乞食强度越大,获得食物的机会就越多;离亲鸟越远的雏鸟越不爱乞食,所以站位对雏鸟的食物获得影响最大;(3)雌鸟承担主要的育雏任务,喂食频率远大于雄鸟;(4)育雏期的不同阶段雏鸟乞食强度、亲鸟喂食频率变化很大:中期雏鸟乞食强度最大,亲鸟喂食频率最高,后期雏鸟乞食强度最弱;(5)整个育雏期雌性亲本没有表现出明显的偏爱行为,但雄性亲本在中、后期更偏爱体型大的雏鸟。可见杂色山雀子代的行为和体型大小影响着亲代的食物分配,亲代也会根据雏鸟日龄调整站位和喂食行为。     

动物的亲代抚育行为

简要介绍了亲代抚育的定义,分别介绍了无脊椎动物,鱼类,两栖动物,爬行动物,鸟类和哺乳动物的亲代抚育行为。     

鼠体突变型p53外源基因的垂直传递和转位观察(英文)

外源基因用于制作转基因鼠并能成功地传递到子代已是不争的事实。但是,有关研究转基因的大小以及对其功能的影响却鲜见报导。本实验对体突变型ｐ５３基因———作为外源基因在１７２ＡｒｇＬｅｕ体突变型ｐ５３基因的双转基因鼠家系中的遗传行为进行了研究。以体突变型ｐ５３基因的ＸｈｏＩＡｐａＬＩ片段为探针,对雌性双转基因鼠＃４４９１及其子代进行Ｓｏｕｔｈｅｒｎｂｌｏｔ分析（Ｆｉｇ．２）。通过ＢｅｔａｇｅｎＭｅｔｅｒ测定,比较杂交膜上探针的吸附量得知：子鼠＃５０７４等体内的外源ｐ５３基因的拷贝数是其亲本＃４４９１的３倍。Ｆｉｇ．１为＃４４９１与雄性ＦＶＢ鼠杂交后代的家系谱。杂交Ｆ１的子代中,那些外源ｐ５３基因拷贝数是其亲代（Ｆ１）３倍的鼠（如＃５０７１和＃６６６８）、其后代中继续出现这种类型的子鼠;而那些与Ｆ１外源ｐ５３基因拷贝数（１倍）相同的子鼠（如＃５０７５）其后代中没有转基因拷贝数的变化。取待测鼠＃５０７４的脾细胞制备染色体,经Ｇ染色,以ＷＡＰ双转基因ＳＶ４０连结ｐ（Ａ）的结构为探针,进行原位荧光测定。Ｆｉｇ．３表明：ｂ所指的外源ｐ５３基因从所在的染色体上发生跳跃（ｊｕｍｐｉｎ）,出现在ｃ和ｄ所指的位置上。可能     

哺乳类早期亲本缺失对子代行为及神经内分泌的影响

亲本投资作为一种早期社会环境对个体发育产生显著的影响。而某些原因会导致哺乳类亲本缺失,造成亲本投资改变。最近有关亲本缺失对子代的影响有较多的研究,本文主要综述了早期母本剥夺、父本剥夺和早期隔离分别对子代成年后情绪、认知及攻击行为、育幼行为和配偶关系的建立等多种社会行为的影响,并总结了这些早期发育的社会环境对神经内分泌的效应,并指出本领域需要解决的问题,希望有助于正确认识哺乳类不同亲本投资对后代行为的影响及相关神经内分泌机制。以上研究可为哺乳类异常行为的发生机制的理解提供重要线索,也为野生动物和实验动物的科学管理提供重要启示。     

电磁脉冲（EMP）辐照对雄性子代大鼠下丘脑GABA_A受体表达的影响

目的：观察电磁脉冲（EMP）辐照亲代大鼠后其雄性子代下丘脑GABAA受体表达的变化。方法：应用免疫组织化学及图像分析观察亲代大鼠接受EMP辐照后其雄性子代下丘脑GABAA受体表达的变化。结果：与对照组相比,100次脉冲组其雄性子代下丘脑室旁核GABAA受体阳性神经元增加,400次脉冲组光密度值显著增强;100次和400次脉冲组弓状核GABAA受体阳性神经元增加,光密度值增强。结论：电磁脉冲可以影响雄性子代下丘脑GABAA受体的表达,这可能与电磁脉冲辐射产生的远期遗传毒性有关。     

鼠体突变型p53外源基因的垂直传递和转位观察

外源基因用于制作转基因鼠并能成功地传递到子代已是不争的事实。但是,有关研究转基因的大小以及对其功能的影响却鲜见报导。本实验对体突变型p53基因－作为外源基因在172^Arg-Leu－体突变型p53基因的双转基因鼠家系中的遗传行为进行了研究。以体突变型p53基因的XhoI-ApaLI片段为探针,对雌性双转基因鼠＃4491及其子代进行Southern blot分析（Fig.2)。通过Betagen Meter测定,比较杂交膜上探针的吸附量得知：子鼠＃5074等体内的外源p53基因的拷贝数是其亲本34491的3倍。Fig.1为＃4491与雄性FVB鼠杂交后代的家系谱。杂交F1的子代中,那些外源p53基因拷贝数是其亲代（F1）3倍的鼠（如＃5071和＃668）、其后代中继续出现这种基因拷贝数的变化。取待测鼠＃5074的脾细胞制备染色体,经G染色,以WAP－双转基因－SV40连结p（A）的结构为探针,进行原位荧光测定。Fig.3表明：b所指的外源p53基因从所在的染色体上发生跳跃（jump in),出现在c和d所指的位置上。可能,整合在＃4491染色体上的外源p53基因有两组,一组是稳定整合的,传代时,可以被传递到所有子代上;另一组是非稳定整合的,由于一些未知因素,在传递过程中被扩增、并发生了跳跃现象。也许,特定位点上转基因的拷贝数有一个限量,适量则稳定;反之、则不稳定。     

杂色山雀(Parus varius)亲代喂食与子代乞食间的行为交流

在育雏期,晚成鸟的子代一般都是由双亲共同来抚育,子代为了更好地存活,会用自己的方式竞争获得更多的食物和更好的生存空间,同时亲代也会通过子代的乞食信号来分配食物。2011年3月-7月采用针孔摄像技术录制了杂色山雀(Parus varius)育雏期巢内亲代与子代间的行为交流,统计了亲鸟站位、雏鸟站位、雏鸟乞食强度及亲鸟的喂食情况等数据。分析结果表明：(1)雌雄亲鸟在巢中的站位各有特点：雄鸟在整个育雏期都喜欢站在距离巢口较近的位置;雌鸟站位不太固定,前期离巢口相对较远,中期和后期离巢口相对较近;(2)雏鸟离亲鸟越近,乞食强度越大,获得食物的机会就越多;(3)杂色山雀主要是雌鸟担任育雏任务,喂食频率远大于雄鸟;(4)育雏期的不同阶段雏鸟乞食强度、亲鸟喂食频率变化很大：中期雏鸟乞食强度最大,亲鸟喂食频率最高,后期雏鸟乞食强度最弱;(5)整个育雏期雌性亲本没表现出明显的偏爱行为,但雄性亲本在中期表现出了偏爱大的雏鸟。     

凡纳滨对虾繁殖中不同亲本对子代遗传贡献率的差异

利用5个含有稀有等位基因的高度多态性微卫星位点比较了凡纳滨对虾繁殖中不同亲本对子代遗传贡献率的差异。通过稀有等位基因的5个微卫星位点能够对亲代和子代的谱系进行明确的鉴别。10个亲代个体中有8个个体对子代群体的基因库有贡献,不同个体之间的贡献率存在差别,最高为54.28%,最低为8.57%。在亲代和子代群体遗传结构的分析中,子代等位基因的数目与亲代相比降低了11.11%。子代的平均期望杂合度(He)、平均观测杂合度(Ho)和平均多态性信息含量(PIC)等指标均低于亲代。实验结果表明:亲本对子代基因库的贡献率的差异也是造成子代群体遗传变异水平降低的原因之一;微卫星标记可作为一种有效的工具用于对虾系谱的确认、人工繁育群体遗传多样性水平的监测等方面     

雌性动物多次交配行为的机制及进化

雌性动物的后代数量不可能超过她的卵子数。在理论上, 一个生殖季节内, 一次或几次交配就足够使雌性所有卵子受精, 最大化其生殖潜能。但与理论预测相反, 许多物种的雌性经常与同一个或多个雄性发生多次交配。交配通常要付出较高的代价, 所以很难理解为什么雌性动物要反复进行多次交配。本文综述了解释此行为的一些适应性和非适应性假说。从获得直接收益和间接收益二个角度介绍了适应性假说。直接收益主要包括求偶喂食和“彩礼”、受精保证、亲代抚育、生殖刺激和护卫交配权等5 个方面。还着重介绍了多次交配对雌性后代的间接遗传受益, 即获得优质基因、提高后代遗传多样性和遗传互补性3 个假说。非适应性假说包括了遗传相关假说和顺从雄性行为假说。     

The evolution of parental care

Our understanding of parental care behavior can be significantly advanced through the application of Williams's Principle, which states that reproduction has not only a benefit but also a cost to lifetime fitness. My laboratory has formalized Williams's Principle into the relative value theorem and found that its application to fishes, the taxa with the most diverse patterns of parental care, can help to explain which sex provides care and how much. In fishes, it is often the male that provides parental care, not because the male obtains greater benefits from this care, but probably because he pays fewer costs. Fish dynamically adjust their investment into parental care according to the number of offspring in their brood, past investment, genetic relatedness, and alternative mating opportunities, all of which affect the value of current offspring relative to potential future offspring. These results may also help us understand the joy and the challenges of parental care in humans.     

The Evolution of Male and Female Parental Care in Fishes

In this paper we propose an explanation for (a) the predominanceof male care in fishes, and (b) the phylogenies and transitionsthat occur among care states. We also provide a general evolutionarymodel for studying the conditions under which parental careevolves. Our conclusions are as follows: (i) Parental care hasonly one benefit, the increased survivorship of young. It may,however, have three costs: a "mating cost," an "adult survivorshipcost," and a "future fertility cost." (ii) On average, malesand females will derive the same benefit from care. They probablyalso pay the same adult survivorship cost. However, their matingcost and future fertility costs may differ, (iii) A mating costusually applies only to males. However, this cost may be reducedby male territoriality and, in some situations, be entirelyremoved. Under this condition, natural selection on presentreproductive success is equivalent for males and females, (iv)When fecundity accelerates with body size in females, whilemale mating success follows a linear relationship with bodysize, future fertility costs of parental care are greater forfemales than males. Although further tests are needed, a preliminaryanalysis suggests this often may be the case in fishes. Thus,the predominance of male parental care in fishes is not explainedby males deriving greater benefits from care, but by males payingsmaller future costs. Males thus accrue a greater net fitnessadvantage from parental care (see expressions [6] and [12]).(v) The evolution of biparental care from uniparental male caremay occur because male care selects for larger egg sizes andincreased embryo investment by females. This increases the benefitto the female of parental care, (vi) By contrast, uniparentalfemale care may originate from biparental care when males areselected to desert. This occurs when female care creates a matingcost to males. In some cases male desertion may "lock" femalesinto uniparental care. However, in many other cases femalesmay be selected to desert, giving rise to "no care." (vii) Theorigin of uniparental female care from no care is rare in externallyfertilizing fishes. This is because the benefits of care rarelyoutweigh a female's future fertility costs (expression [9]).For internally fertilizing species, however, the benefit ofcare is high whereas the cost is probably low. Most of thesespecies have evolved embryo retention, (viii) When parentalcare begins with male care and moves to biparental care, ouranalysis suggests that care evolution will include cyclicaldynamics. Parental care in some fishes may thus be seen as transitionaland changing through evolutionary time rather than as an evolutionarilystable state. In theory, "no care" may be a phylogeneticallyadvanced state.     

Competition for territories does not explain allopaternal care in the tessellated darter

Extensive research has focused on understanding the evolution of parental care, with fishes providing important model systems for understanding patterns of variation within and between species. Classic theory predicts that individuals will care for offspring when the fitness benefits through increased offspring survival and growth outweigh the cost to the parents through decreased future reproductive opportunities. Yet, a puzzling observation not explained by this basic theory is the fact that in some species individuals defend and provision unrelated offspring and thus exhibit alloparental care. The tessellated darter, Etheostoma olmstedi, represents one of the first known examples of allopaternal care in fishes. In this species, males often clean and guard eggs fertilized but deserted by other males. Allopaternal care has been argued to occur in the tessellated darter because of competition for a limited number of mating sites where less dominant males accept territories with eggs when other breeding sites are not available. Here, we test this hypothesis using male territory choice experiments. When allowed to choose between two otherwise identical territories either containing eggs fertilized by another male or with no eggs, males spent significantly more time at territories with eggs. This demonstrates that competition for mating territories is not the primary factor explaining the existence of allopaternal care in the tessellated darter. Instead, males of this species may exhibit allopaternal care to dilute predator pressure on their own eggs or because females prefer to mate with males whose territories contain eggs.     

Paternity and the evolution of male parental care

It is generally believed that level of paternity (the proportion of zygotes in a brood that were fertilized by the male providing parental care) has an important role in the evolution of parental care. We have used population genetics models to investigate this role. The models indicate that only in mating systems where a parental male “sacrifices” promiscous matings can paternity influence the evolution of male parental care. This is because level of paternity can reflect the number of opportunities for these promiscuous fertilizations. For example, high paternity can mean few opportunities and therefore a low cost for paternal care.Certain behaviors may preadapt a species for the evolution of male parental care because they decrease the costs of providing care. For example, in fish species where male care has evolved from spawning territories, the very establishment of territories may have precluded males from gaining promiscuous matings, thereby eliminating the promiscuity costs and facilitating the evolution of care. Without a promiscuity cost, level of paternity will not have influenced the evolution of male care in fishes.Because paternity has limited influence in the evolution of male care, differences in reliability of parentage between males and females are unlikely to explain the prevalence of female care. Our analysis suggests that paternity differences between species cannot serve as a general explanation for the observed patterns of parental care behavior.     

Male pregnancy in seahorses and pipefishes (family Syngnathidae): rapid diversification of paternal brood pouch morphology inferred from a molecular phylogeny

In contrast to the majority of vertebrate species, primary male parental care is common in fishes and encompasses a remarkable diversity of adaptations. Seahorses and pipefishes (Family Syngnathidae) exhibit some of the most specialized forms of paternal care in animals and so are ideally suited to the study of the evolution of male parental care. During mating, female syngnathids transfer eggs to specialized morphological structures that are located on either the abdomen or tail of the male. The male provides all postfertilization parental care and has morphological and physiological adaptations to osmoregulate, aerate, and even nourish the developing embryos. While all syngnathid species are adapted for paternal care, the brooding structure with which this is accomplished varies between species, from simple ventral gluing areas to much more complex structures such as the completely enclosed pouches of the seahorses. Our combined cytochrome b-, 12S rDNA-, and 16S rDNA-based molecular phylogeny of syngnathid fishes demonstrates that rapid diversification of male brooding structures has been associated with the major evolutionary radiation of the group, suggesting that development and diversification of structures involved in paternal care may have been key evolutionary innovations of the Syngnathidae. Molecular analyses also highlight geographical centers of biodiversity and suggest interoceanic migration of Syngnathus pipefishes from their center of origin in the Pacific.     

Paternity, parental behavior and circulating steroid hormone concentrations in nest-tending male bluegill

Like many teleost fishes, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) are characterized by sole male parental care of offspring. In addition, bluegill parental males experience cuckoldry by specialized parasitic male morphs. This cuckoldry has previously been shown to influence the expression of parental care behavior. To better understand some of the proximate mechanisms mediating parental behavior, we examined the relationships between circulating steroid hormones, paternity, and parental behavior during the egg and fry stages of care in parentals that spawned during the first third of the breeding season. During the egg stage of care, we found that males with higher paternity had lower levels of testosterone, but there was no relationship between paternity and either 11-ketotestosterone or cortisol. There also was no relationship between the hormones and care behavior comprising fanning of the eggs, nest rim circles, chases of brood predators, or pecking at the eggs (indicative of egg cannibalism), except for a negative relationship between cortisol and pecking behavior. During the fry stage of care, we conversely found that males with higher paternity had higher levels of testosterone and 11-ketotestosterone. There also was a negative relationship between the concentrations of these two androgens and the defensive behavior of males when exposed to a potential brood predator (a pumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus). We discuss these results in relation to previous work in fishes and other vertebrate taxa. Overall, our data suggest a complex relationship between circulating steroid hormone levels, paternity and parental behavior.     

Evolutionary transitions in parental care and live bearing in vertebrates

We provide the first review of phylogenetic transitions in parental care and live bearing for a wide variety of vertebrates. This includes new analyses of both numbers of transitions and transition probabilities. These reveal numerous transitions by shorebirds and anurans toward uniparental care by either sex. Whereas most or all of the shorebird transitions were from biparental care, nearly all of the anuran transitions have been from no care, reflecting the prevalence of each form of care in basal lineages in each group. Teleost (bony) fishes are similar to anurans in displaying numerous transitions toward uniparental contributions by each sex. Whereas cichlid fishes have often evolved from biparental care to female care, other teleosts have usually switched from no care to male care. Taxa that have evolved exclusive male care without courtship-role reversal are characterized by male territoriality and low costs of care per brood. Males may therefore benefit from care through female preference of parental ability in these species. Primates show a high frequency of transitions from female care to biparental care, reflecting the prevalence of female care in basal lineages. In the numerous taxa that display live bearing by females, including teleosts, elasmobranchs, squamate reptiles and invertebrates, we find that live bearing has always evolved from a lack of care. Although the transition counts and probabilities will undoubtedly be refined as phylogenetic information and methodologies improve, the overall biases in these taxa should help to place adaptive hypotheses for the evolution of care into a stronger setting for understanding directions of change.     

Phylogenetic perspectives in the evolution of parental care in ray-finned fishes

Among major vertebrate groups, ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) collectively display a nearly unrivaled diversity of parental care activities. This fact, coupled with a growing body of phylogenetic data for Actinopterygii, makes these fishes a logical model system for analyzing the evolutionary histories of alternative parental care modes and associated reproductive behaviors. From an extensive literature review, we constructed a supertree for ray-finned fishes and used its phylogenetic topology to investigate the evolution of several key reproductive states including type of parental care (maternal, paternal, or biparental), internal versus external fertilization, internal versus external gestation, nest construction behavior, and presence versus absence of sexual dichromatism (as an indicator of sexual selection). Using a comparative phylogenetic approach, we critically evaluate several hypotheses regarding evolutionary pathways toward parental care. Results from maximum parsimony reconstructions indicate that all forms of parental care, including paternal, biparental, and maternal (both external and internal to the female reproductive tract) have arisen repeatedly and independently during ray-finned fish evolution. The most common evolutionary transitions were from external fertilization directly to paternal care and from external fertilization to maternal care via the intermediate step of internal fertilization. We also used maximum likelihood phylogenetic methods to test for statistical correlations and contingencies in the evolution of pairs of reproductive traits. Sexual dichromatism and nest construction proved to be positively correlated with the evolution of male parental care in species with external fertilization. Sexual dichromatism was also positively correlated with female-internal fertilization and gestation. No clear indication emerged that female-only care or biparental care were evolutionary outgrowths of male-only care, or that biparental care has been a common evolutionary stepping stone between paternal and maternal care. Results are discussed in the context of prior thought about the evolution of alternative parental care modes in vertebrates.     

Environmental Effects on Male Reproductive Success and Parental Care in the Florida Flagfish Jordanella floridae

Models of optimal parental care predict that parental investment should depend on offspring value or the effect parental care has on offspring benefits. Few studies have examined the effect of external factors that influence offspring survival and the cost of care. In this study on the Florida flagfish (Jordanella floridae), a species with male parental care, we examined whether environmentally induced changes in care result from changes in egg requirements or in parental costs. We manipulated salinity and temperature, as these factors are known to affect the metabolic rate in both eggs and parents. We predicted that if the change in care behavior is determined by costs to the male then it should be paralleled by changes in non‐egg‐directed behavior. Conversely, if egg‐directed behavior changes independently of other behavior it would suggest that behavior is determined primarily by egg requirements. In addition we examined patterns of mating success under the assumption that if male care is affected by environmental factors then female preferences may change accordingly. Males decreased egg‐directed behavior (fanning and cleaning of eggs) at high salinity. Non‐egg‐directed behavior was unaffected by salinity. Temperature had no effects on behavior. Thus, we conclude that changes in egg demands are primarily responsible for the observed results. Successful males were bigger and more aggressive. This suggests that male dominance was an important determinant of male mating success. Unsuccessful males showed significantly more variation in number of red stripes with respect to salinity than successful males. Unsuccessful males may be less able to regulate color expression under varying environmental conditions, in which case color may be an indicator of male quality. We replicated the experiment early and late in the season. Males did not change their effort in care over the season. However, care (fanning) in the absence of eggs increased towards the end of the season. Since pre‐mating fanning was positively correlated to a male’s eventual mating success we conclude that males increased their effort to attract mates late in the season.     

Antimicrobial egg cleaning by the fringed darter (Perciformes: Percidae: Etheostoma crossopterum): implications of a novel component of parental care in fishes

Broad-spectrum antimicrobial compounds have recently been identified in the epidermal mucus of fishes and probably serve as a first line of defence against microbial pathogens. Because of the ubiquitous nature of fungi and bacteria in aquatic systems, defence against these pathogens should be required throughout the lifespan of fishes, including the egg stage. We conducted experiments on Etheostoma crossopterum (Percidae: Catonotus), the fringed darter, to determine if the presence of a guarding male inhibits microbial colonization of eggs. Based on results from a combination of in-stream experiments, in vitro microbial assays, and morphological characteristics and behaviour of breeding males, we propose that antimicrobial egg cleaning by the guarding male is an effective component of parental care in these fish. Although innate antimicrobial compounds have been identified in a variety of organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates, integration of these compounds into a species's reproductive life history has been identified only in a small number of insect species. The results from this study not only indicate that E. crossopterum males provide a novel form of vertebrate parental care, but also have implications regarding the evolution of parental care in fishes and transitional evolutionary stages from no parental care to male parental care.