嗜神经性疱疹病毒：神经科学研究的有力工具

病毒是研究现代神经科学的有力工具。对神经元的连接方式及功能研究大都是利用重组病毒完成的,嗜神经性疱疹病毒便是其中一种重要工具。随着基因工程学以及分子生物学技术的不断发展,多种嗜神经性疱疹病毒被改造为不同的重组病毒工具应用于神经科学研究。本文基于几种常见且应用较为广泛的嗜神经性疱疹病毒作为神经传导示踪工具、治疗神经性疾病的病毒载体和溶瘤病毒治疗神经肿瘤等应用进行阐述及讨论,为进一步开发嗜神经性疱疹病毒的功能提供参考。     

脑成像与脑网络

揭示脑的奥秘是人类面临的最大挑战之一。神经元是构成神经系统结构与功能的基本单位。神经元与神经元之间通过突触实现信息交互,并构成神经环路或神经网络。神经环路有局部的,也有跨脑区或长程的,甚至全脑尺度的。神经环路则是脑实现神经信息处理的基本单元。若干神经环路构成脑网络。脑网络研究已经成为脑功能与脑疾病研究领域的热点。     

老年痴呆症的突触和神经环路机制

老年痴呆症的主要临床表现为认知功能严重受损,其原因可能是皮层与海马内的突触结构或功能障碍及神经环路活动异常所致。可溶性Aβ尤其是Aβ寡聚体(而不是沉积在脑组织中的淀粉样斑块)可能首先选择性地攻击GABA能抑制性神经元,使海马或皮层内兴奋性神经元由于所受抑制减弱而过度兴奋,进而导致神经环路或网络活动异常。神经网络异常又通过一系列的代偿反应引起突触传递和突触可塑性受损。正常生理水平的tau通过不同的机制在介导Aβ的突触及神经环路毒性中扮演重要角色。     

幼年斑马鱼的视觉系统与捕食行为

神经环路的研究是揭示动物行为神经机制的关键。斑马鱼作为一种低等脊椎动物, 在神经环路的研究中有着独特优势。文章描述了斑马鱼视觉系统及其下游的神经环路, 重点讨论了它们在捕食行为中的可能作用。斑马鱼捕食行为主要依赖于视觉功能, 该过程涉及到视觉-运动通路各个层次的神经环路, 包括下游的网状脊髓命令神经元、脊髓内部的运动控制环路以及一些亟待研究的功能单元。随着在体记录和操纵神经元活动技术的成熟, 以及行为学范式的完善, 对斑马鱼捕食行为相关神经环路的研究将在未来数年内迅速发展, 同时也将推动神经科学相关研究的进步。     

伪狂犬病毒神经传导研究

伪狂犬病毒对神经系统的传导具有跨突触传导、自我复制和宿主范围广等特性,自20世纪70年代起,便开始运用于神经解剖学研究领域。四十年的应用实践使伪狂犬病毒神经传导有了许多新的进展,无论是在病毒神经传导机理上,还是在传导应用中。伪狂犬病毒神经传导机理,着重于阐释病毒对初级神经细胞的侵染过程和对次级神经细胞的传导方向;传导应用则着重于探索新的神经传导毒株和对病毒传导技术进行革新。目前,伪狂犬病毒神经传导理论和应用尚有许多未知的领域需要研究,结合分子生物学技术的探索会使神经传导研究事半功倍。     

狂犬病毒作为神经示踪剂的研究进展

狂犬病毒是仅有的完全特异的示踪剂,因为它能逆向通过化学突触进行神经示踪且不改变神经细胞的代谢,可以逐级的,时间依赖的方式感染大量的突触联系的神经网络.根据狂犬病毒的特性解释该病毒作为神经示踪剂的优势,总结狂犬病毒跨神经进行示踪的方法,并对基因修饰的狂犬病毒的新兴技术进行讨论和展望.     

细胞类型特异的遗传学操作：揭开复杂神经环路的面纱

现代神经科学的一个重要课题足阐明复杂神经环路及其细胞组成形成行为的机制。我们希望可以通过对特定神经元群体的区分和操作在引发行为的神经计算和特定神经元群体活性之间建立一种因果联系。运用BAC重组工程技术,我们建立了超过20个“敲入”驱动品系。在这些驱动品系中,Cre或者是可诱导的CreER能够在特定类掣的GABA能细胞中表达。另外,我们还建立了一些Cre报告小鼠品系和一。个基于病毒转染的蛋白表达系统。这些病毒包含一个Cre-激活的表达元件,可以将一些荧光蛋白或分了开关在体内以很高的效率表达。这种基因操作的策略可以使我们进行如下的一些观察和操作：（1）在突触水平观察中间神经元的形态和他们之间的联系;（2）观察中间神经元的活性及其过往的活动;（3）在生理的时间分辨率上操纵特定细胞群的发放和突触传递。这将使我们对复杂神经环路功能和组织的认识进入。个全新的领域。     

大鼠初级传入纤维与脊髓背角神经元间的动作电序列的突触传递

外周感觉神经元通过动作电位序列对信号进行编码,这些动作电位序列经过突触传递最终到达脑部。但是各种脉冲序列如何通过神经元之间的化学突触进行传递依然是一个悬而未决的问题。研究了初级传入A6纤维与背角神经元之间各种动作电位序列的突触传递过程。用于刺激的规则,周期、随机脉冲序列由短簇脉冲或单个脉冲构成。定义“事件”(event)为峰峰问期(intefspike interval)小于或等于规定阈值的最长动作电位串,然后从脉冲序列中提取事件间间期(interevent interval,IEI)。用时间,IEI图与回归映射的方法分析IEI序列,结果表明在突触后输出脉冲序列中可以检测到突触前脉冲序列的主要时间结构特征,特别是在短簇脉冲作为刺激单位时。通过计算输入与输出脉冲序列的互信息,发现短簇脉冲可以更可靠地跨突触传递由输入序列携带的神经信息。这些结果表明外周输入脉冲序列的主要时间结构特征可以跨突触传递,在突触传递神经信息的过程中短簇脉冲更为有效。这一研究在从突触传递角度探索神经信息编码方面迈出了一步。     

神经干细胞迁移浅识

神经干细胞的迁移是近年来神经科学领域研究的热点之一.神经干细胞的增殖、迁移、分化和网络重建的特性为研究中枢神经系统退行性疾病及损伤后功能的恢复奠定了基础,其中神经干细胞的迁移发挥了重要作用.目前已经有大量研究探索神经干细胞的迁移,本文将分别从神经干细胞的迁移现象、神经干细胞迁移的影响因素及其应用意义等方面做一综述.     

突触可塑性与脑疾病的神经发育基础

大脑神经回路高度有序的神经元活动是高级脑功能的基础,神经元之间的突触联结是神经回路的关键功能节点。神经突触根据神经元活动调整其传递效能的能力,亦即突触可塑性,被认为是神经回路发育和学习与记忆功能的基础。其异常则可能导致如抑郁症和阿尔茨海默病等精神、神经疾病。将介绍这两种疾病与突触可塑性的关系,聚焦于相关分子和细胞机制以及新的研究、治疗手段等进展。     

Physiology and pharmacology of ejaculation

Ejaculation requires an interplay of peripheral actors comprising, among others, smooth and skeletal fibers, glandular and endothelial cells. These actors are driven by vegetative and somatic innervations, deriving essentially from the spinal cord, in turn controlled by cerebral structures and endocrine factors, mostly steroids; These controls require sensitive afferences and command two steps, emission under autonomic control, and ejaculation per se which further involves somatic motoneurons. This review first describes the peripheral innervation of the part of the genital tract concerned in ejaculation, in which the sympathetic component is predominant and releases noradrenalin and neuropeptides; however parasympathetic and somatic components also play a role. At the spinal level, control circuits are organized into networks influenced by spinal structures, which have been discovered through selective lesions or stimulations, as well as by retrograde trans-synaptic tracing with neurotropic viruses. Among these structures, the median preoptic area and the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus are major regulation sites. On the other hand, serotoninergic and also dopaminergic and adrenergic systems are implicated as well in the command of ejaculation; the latter constitute priviledged targets for a pharmacological treatment of dysfunctions.     

Viral infection and neural stem/progenitor cell's fate: implications in brain development and neurological disorders

Viral infections in the prenatal (during pregnancy) and perinatal period have been a common cause of brain malformation. Besides the immediate neurological dysfunctions, virus infections may critically affect CNS development culminating in long-term cognitive deficits. Most of these neurotropic viruses are most damaging at a critical stage of the host, when the brain is in a dynamic stage of development. The neuropathology can be attributed to the massive neuronal loss induced by the virus as well as lack of CNS repair owing to a deficit in the neural stem/progenitor cell (NSPC) pool or aberrant formation of new neurons from NSPCs. Being one of the mitotically active populations in the post natal brain, the NSPCs have emerged as the potential targets of neurotropic viruses. The NSPCs are self-renewing and multipotent cells residing in the neurogenic niches of the brain, and, therefore, hampering the developmental fate of these cells may adversely affect the overall neurogenesis pattern. A number of neurotropic viruses utilize NSPCs as their cellular reservoirs and often establish latent and persistent infection in them. Both HIV and Herpes virus infect NSPCs over long periods of time and reactivation of the virus may occur later in life. The virus infected NSPCs either undergoes cell cycle arrest or impaired neuronal or glial differentiation, all of which leads to impaired neurogenesis. The disturbances in neurogenesis and CNS development following neurotropic virus infections have direct implications in the viral pathogenesis and long-term neurobehavioral outcome in infected individuals.     

Immune response and blood–brain barrier dysfunction during viral neuroinvasion

The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which protects the CNS from pathogens, is composed of specialized brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) joined by tight junctions and ensheathed by pericytes and astrocyte endfeet. The stability of the BBB structure and function is of great significance for the maintenance of brain homeostasis. When a neurotropic virus invades the CNS via a hematogenous or non-hematogenous route, it may cause structural and functional disorders of the BBB, and also activate the BBB anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory innate immune response. This article focuses on the structural and functional changes that occur in the three main components of the BBB (endothelial cells, astrocytes, and pericytes) in response to infection with neurotropic viruses transmitted by hematogenous routes, and also briefly describes the supportive effect of three cells on the BBB under normal physiological conditions. For example, all three types of cells express several PRRs, which can quickly sense the virus and make corresponding immune responses. The pro-inflammatory immune response will exacerbate the destruction of the BBB, while the anti-inflammatory immune response, based on type I IFN, consolidates the stability of the BBB. Exploring the details of the interaction between the host and the pathogen at the BBB during neurotropic virus infection will help to propose new treatments for viral encephalitis. Enhancing the defense function of the BBB, maintaining the integrity of the BBB, and suppressing the pro-inflammatory immune response of the BBB provide more ideas for limiting the neuroinvasion of neurotropic viruses. In the future, these new treatments are expected to cooperate with traditional antiviral methods to improve the therapeutic effect of viral encephalitis.     

Scalable Fluidic Injector Arrays for Viral Targeting of Intact 3-D Brain Circuits

Our understanding of neural circuits--how they mediate the computations that subserve sensation, thought, emotion, and action, and how they are corrupted in neurological and psychiatric disorders--would be greatly facilitated by a technology for rapidly targeting genes to complex 3-dimensional neural circuits, enabling fast creation of "circuit-level transgenics." We have recently developed methods in which viruses encoding for light-sensitive proteins can sensitize specific cell types to millisecond-timescale activation and silencing in the intact brain. We here present the design and implementation of an injector array capable of delivering viruses (or other fluids) to dozens of defined points within the 3-dimensional structure of the brain (Figure. 1A, 1B). The injector array comprises one or more displacement pumps that each drive a set of syringes, each of which feeds into a polyimide/fused-silica capillary via a high-pressure-tolerant connector. The capillaries are sized, and then inserted into, desired locations specified by custom-milling a stereotactic positioning board, thus allowing viruses or other reagents to be delivered to the desired set of brain regions. To use the device, the surgeon first fills the fluidic subsystem entirely with oil, backfills the capillaries with the virus, inserts the device into the brain, and infuses reagents slowly (<0.1 microliters/min). The parallel nature of the injector array facilitates rapid, accurate, and robust labeling of entire neural circuits with viral payloads such as optical sensitizers to enable light-activation and silencing of defined brain circuits. Along with other technologies, such as optical fiber arrays for light delivery to desired sets of brain regions, we hope to create a toolbox that enables the systematic probing of causal neural functions in the intact brain. This technology may not only open up such systematic approaches to circuit-focused neuroscience in mammals, and facilitate labeling of brain regions in large animals such as non-human primates, but may also open up a clinical translational path for cell-specific optical control prosthetics, whose precision may enable improved treatment of intractable brain disorders. Finally, such devices as described here may facilitate precisely-timed fluidic delivery of other payloads, such as stem cells and pharmacological agents, to 3-dimensional structures, in an easily user-customizable fashion.     

伪狂犬病毒跨突触示踪视觉系统神经网络的研究进展

伪狂犬病毒（PRV）作为一种亲神经性的病毒,它以其自我复制、跨突触、特异性传递的三大优势在揭示神经系统中功能性神经元之间的连接发挥着重大的作用。经基因重组后的伪狂犬病毒不但继承了原有病毒的优势,同时还延伸出其他特异性的功能,如重组后加入了荧光蛋白的伪狂犬病毒在视觉系统神经通路的研究中发挥了重要作用。本文就目前伪狂犬病毒跨突触示踪视觉系统神经网络中的研究做一综述。     

Apoptosis Induction Influences Reovirus Replication and Virulence in Newborn Mice

Apoptosis is a type of controlled cell death that is essential for development and tissue homeostasis. It also serves as a robust host response against infection by many viruses. The capacity of neurotropic viruses to induce apoptosis strongly correlates with virulence. However, the precise function of apoptosis in viral infection is not well understood. Reovirus is a neurotropic virus that induces apoptosis in a variety of cell types, including central nervous system neurons, leading to fatal encephalitis in newborn mice. To determine the effect of apoptosis on reovirus replication in the host, we generated two otherwise isogenic viruses that differ in a single amino acid in viral capsid protein μ1 that segregates with apoptotic capacity. Apoptosis-proficient and apoptosis-deficient viruses were compared for replication, dissemination, tropism, and tissue injury in newborn mice and for the capacity to spread to uninfected littermates. Our results indicate that apoptotic capacity enhances reovirus replication in the brain and consequent neurovirulence but reduces transmission efficiency. The replication advantage of the apoptosis-proficient strain is limited to the brain and correlates with enhanced infectivity of neurons. These studies reveal a new cell type-specific determinant of reovirus virulence.     

Neurogenesis in the mature olfactory bulb and it's possible functional destination

This review is concerned with neurogenesis in the mature mammalian brain with emphasis on cell population renewal in the olfactory bulb (OB). The structural and functional features of the OB are considered along with data on neurotropic viruses and toxic dust penetration into the CNS through the OB. We hypothesize a protective role of neurogenesis in the mature OB. This suggests that normal renewal of cell populations in the OB is an important barrier mechanism protecting the brain from invasion of small amounts of harmful neurotropic agents (ex. viruses and particles of toxic dust), which can cause various neurodegenerative diseases.     

Increased CCR5 affinity and reduced CCR5/CD4 dependence of a neurovirulent primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolate

Most human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) viruses in the brain use CCR5 as the principal coreceptor for entry into a cell. However, additional phenotypic characteristics are necessary for HIV-1 neurotropism. Furthermore, neurotropic strains are not necessarily neurovirulent. To better understand the determinants of HIV-1 neurovirulence, we isolated viruses from brain tissue samples from three AIDS patients with dementia and HIV-1 encephalitis and analyzed their ability to induce syncytia in monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) and neuronal apoptosis in primary brain cultures. Two R5X4 viruses (MACS1-br and MACS1-spln) were highly fusogenic in MDM and induced neuronal apoptosis. The R5 viruses UK1-br and MACS2-br are both neurotropic. However, only UK1-br induced high levels of fusion in MDM and neuronal apoptosis. Full-length Env clones from UK1-br required lower CCR5 and CD4 levels than Env clones from MACS2-br to function efficiently in cell-to-cell fusion and single-round infection assays. UK1-br Envs also had a greater affinity for CCR5 than MACS2-br Envs in binding assays. Relatively high levels of UK1-br and MACS2-br Envs bound to CCR5 in the absence of soluble CD4. However, these Envs could not mediate CD4-independent infection, and MACS2-br Envs were unable to mediate fusion or infection in cells expressing low levels of CD4. The UK1-br virus was more resistant than MACS2-br to inhibition by the CCR5-targeted inhibitors TAK-779 and Sch-C. UK1-br was more sensitive than MACS2-br to neutralization by monoclonal antibodies (2F5 and immunoglobulin G1b12 [IgG1b12]) and CD4-IgG2. These results predict the presence of HIV-1 variants with increased CCR5 affinity and reduced dependence on CCR5 and CD4 in the brains of some AIDS patients with central nervous system disease and suggest that R5 variants with increased CCR5 affinity may represent a pathogenic viral phenotype contributing to the neurodegenerative manifestations of AIDS.     

Understanding the brain by controlling neural activity

Causal methods to interrogate brain function have been employed since the advent of modern neuroscience in the nineteenth century. Initially, randomly placed electrodes and stimulation of parts of the living brain were used to localize specific functions to these areas. Recent technical developments have rejuvenated this approach by providing more precise tools to dissect the neural circuits underlying behaviour, perception and cognition. Carefully controlled behavioural experiments have been combined with electrical devices, targeted genetically encoded tools and neurochemical approaches to manipulate information processing in the brain. The ability to control brain activity in these ways not only deepens our understanding of brain function but also provides new avenues for clinical intervention, particularly in conditions where brain processing has gone awry.     

Synaptic cell adhesion

Chemical synapses are asymmetric intercellular junctions that mediate synaptic transmission. Synaptic junctions are organized by trans-synaptic cell adhesion molecules bridging the synaptic cleft. Synaptic cell adhesion molecules not only connect pre- and postsynaptic compartments, but also mediate trans-synaptic recognition and signaling processes that are essential for the establishment, specification, and plasticity of synapses. A growing number of synaptic cell adhesion molecules that include neurexins and neuroligins, Ig-domain proteins such as SynCAMs, receptor phosphotyrosine kinases and phosphatases, and several leucine-rich repeat proteins have been identified. These synaptic cell adhesion molecules use characteristic extracellular domains to perform complementary roles in organizing synaptic junctions that are only now being revealed. The importance of synaptic cell adhesion molecules for brain function is highlighted by recent findings implicating several such molecules, notably neurexins and neuroligins, in schizophrenia and autism.