The status and causes of alien species invasion in China

Data of classification, origin, pathway and environmental impacts of invasive alien micro-organisms, invertebrates, amphibians and reptiles, fish, birds, mammals, weeds, trees, and marine organisms in terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems of China, were analyzed, based on literature retrieval, field survey and consultation. Some 283 invasive alien species were recorded in China, including 19 invasive alien micro-organisms, 18 aquatic plants, 170 terrestrial plants, 25 aquatic invertebrates, 33 terrestrial invertebrates, 3 amphibians and reptiles, 10 fish, and 5 mammals. Of the invasive alien species, 55.1% originated from North and South America, 21.7% from Europe, 9.9% from Asia, 8.1% from Africa and 0.6% from Oceania. Many institutions and individuals in China lack adequate knowledge of ecological and environmental consequences caused by invasive alien species, with some ignorance of the dangerous invasion in the introduction of alien species. For instance, 50.0% of invasive alien plants were intentionally introduced as pasture, feedingstuff, ornamental plants, textile plants, medicinal plants, vegetables, or lawn plants, 25% of alien invasive animals were intentionally introduced for cultivation, ornament, or biological control, In addition, more efforts are being made in the introduction of alien species, and little attention is paid on the management of introduced alien species, which may cause their escape into natural environment and potential threats to the environment. There were also gaps in quarantine system in China. All microorganisms were unintentionally introduced, through timber, seedling, flowerpot, or soil; 76.3% of alien invasive animals invaded through commodity or transportation facility because of the failure of quarantine. Therefore, quarantine measures should be strictly implemented; and meanwhile the intentional introduction of alien species should be strictly managed and a system of risk assessment should be implemented.     

中国外来入侵物种的分布与传入路径分析

外来物种入侵已成为全球性的环境问题,本文采用文献调研,实地考察与专家咨询相结合的方式,调查了全国陆生,淡水水生生态系统中外来入侵微生物,无脊椎动物,两栖爬行类,鱼类,鸟类,哺乳类,杂草,树木和海洋生态系统中外来入侵物种的种类及分类地位,起源,引入路径和环境影响等内容。查明我国共有283种外来入侵物种,其中外来入侵微生物,水生植物,陆生植物,水生无脊椎动物,陆生无脊椎动物,两栖爬行类,鱼类,哺乳类分别为19种,18种,170种,25种,33种,3种,10种和5种,来源于美洲,欧洲,亚洲,非洲,大洋洲的外来入侵物种分别占55.1%,21.7%,9.9%.8.1%和0.6%。我国对外来物种的引进存在一定程度的盲目性;50.%的外来入侵植物是作为牧草或饲料,观赏植物,纤维植物,药用植物,蔬菜,草坪模特而引进的;25%的外来入侵动物是用于养殖,观赏,生物防治的引种,对外来物种只重引进,疏于管理,也可能导致外来物种逃逸到自然环境中,造成潜在的环境意传入的;76.3%的外来入侵动物是由于检查不严,随贸易物品或运输工具传入我国的。因此,我国既要加强检疫工作,又要对外来物种的有意引进进行严格管理,实行外来物种引进的风险评估制度。     

湖北省外来入侵生物及其与社会经济活动的关系

采用实地调查和查阅文献的方法,系统地研究了湖北省外来入侵生物的发生概况,分析了其传入途径及其与人类活动的关系。结果表明,当前湖北省共有外来入侵物种163种。其中,植物病原微生物14种,水生杂草3种,陆生杂草101种,水生无脊椎动物2种,陆生无脊椎动物17种,两栖爬行类3种,鱼类18种,哺乳类5种。在外来入侵杂草中,菊科最多（32种）,占总数的30.8%;禾本科次之（11种）;豆科排第3位（10种）。外来生物入侵湖北省的主要途径有2类：（1）有目的引进,占入侵物种总数的53.4%;（2）无意带入,占入侵物种总数的46.6%。1990-2009年,湖北省的外来入侵物种数随该省的GDP、入境旅游人数、进出口总额和交通密度的增加而明显上升。因此,在大力发展经济的同时,有必要进一步加强引种监管,严格执行检疫措施,以防止新的外来生物入侵。同时,需开展外来入侵生物的防控技术研究,以遏制已入侵物种的传播蔓延,控制其危害。     

“世界100种恶性外来入侵物种”在我国大陆的入侵现状

[目的] 明确世界自然保护联盟公布的“世界100种恶性外来入侵物种”在我国大陆发生分布现状,为我国制定外来入侵物种管控对象和分级管理对策提供依据。[方法] 基于在线数据库系统、文献报道以及外来入侵物种本底调查结果,采用分类统计方法,对物种的分类地位、原产地、在我国的入侵状态及其所在的生态系统进行分析。[结果] 世界100种恶性外来入侵物种已有82种在我国发生分布,包括本地种33种、外来入侵种32种、外来非入侵种16种,以及未明确入侵状态1种。其中,32种外来入侵种包括陆生无脊椎动物8种、哺乳动物2种、鱼类2种、两栖动物1种、爬行动物1种、水生无脊椎动物2种、陆生植物9种、水生植物4种、真菌1种、卵菌1种和病毒1种。以上物种主要分布在东南沿海地区和西南地区,而较少分布在西北地区和东北地区;约75%物种分布在农田、城镇、森林和湿地4类生态系统。[结论] 建议外来入侵物种管理部门重点关注尚未在国内发生分布的18种潜在外来入侵物种,并列入国家外来入侵物种相关管理对象,严防其传入与扩散;严密监控国内已发生且具有潜在危险的外来物种,防止其向可能入侵的生态系统边缘扩散;继续对在国内已发生的外来入侵种实施区域性分级控制管理措施。     

Conservation of Southern Ocean Islands: invertebrates as exemplars

The Southern Ocean Islands (SOI) have an exceptionally high conservation status, and human activity on the islands is low by comparison with more tropical islands. In consequence, overexploitation, pollution and habitat destruction have had little influence on the invertebrate biotas of the islands, although overexploitation of pelagic species has the potential for an indirect influence via reduction of nutrient inputs to the terrestrial systems. By contrast, invasive alien species, the local effects of global climate change, and interactions between them are having large impacts on invertebrate populations and, as a consequence, on ecosystem functioning. Climate change is not only having direct impacts on indigenous invertebrates, but also seems to be promoting the ease of establishment of new alien invertebrate species. It is also contributing to population increases of invertebrate alien species already on the islands, sometimes with pronounced negative consequences for indigenous species and ecosystem functioning. Moreover, alien plants and mammals are also affecting indigenous invertebrate populations, often with climate change expected to exacerbate the impacts. Although the conservation requirements are reasonably well-understood for terrestrial systems, knowledge of freshwater and marine near-shore systems is inadequate. Nonetheless, what is known for terrestrial, freshwater and marine systems suggests that ongoing conservation of SOI invertebrates requires intervention from the highest political levels internationally, to slow climate change, to local improvements of quarantine measures to reduce the rates and impacts of biological invasions.     

Will climate change promote future invasions?

Biological invasion is increasingly recognized as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity. Using ensemble forecasts from species distribution models to project future suitable areas of the 100 of the world's worst invasive species defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, we show that both climate and land use changes will likely cause drastic species range shifts. Looking at potential spatial aggregation of invasive species, we identify three future hotspots of invasion in Europe, northeastern North America, and Oceania. We also emphasize that some regions could lose a significant number of invasive alien species, creating opportunities for ecosystem restoration. From the list of 100, scenarios of potential range distributions show a consistent shrinking for invasive amphibians and birds, while for aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates distributions are projected to substantially increase in most cases. Given the harmful impacts these invasive species currently have on ecosystems, these species will likely dramatically influence the future of biodiversity.     

Evolutionary significance of ontogenetic colour change in animals

Ontogenetic colour changes are non-reversible colour changes associated with normal progressive development of an individual of a species. This paper provides the first review of the evolutionary significance of this phenomenon in animals. Proximate mechanisms and environmental cues are briefly discussed and a conceptual framework for understanding the ultimate reasons for ontogenetic colour change is established. Changes in size, vulnerability, reproductive status, habitat and metabolism are often associated with ontogenetic colour change and can aid in understanding its adaptive significance. Neutral or non-adaptive ontogenetic colour changes due to phylogenetic inertia and developmental constraints are also considered. Existing studies of ontogenetic colour changes in marine invertebrates, terrestrial invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are discussed within this framework. A need is identified for more experimental tests of hypotheses for the significance of ontogenetic colour change.     

Relationships between species richness of vascular plants and terrestrial vertebrates in China: analyses based on data of nature reserves

The relationship between plant diversity and animal diversity on a broadscale and its mechanisms are uncertain. In this study, we explored this relationship and its possible mechanisms using data from 186 nature reserves across China on species richness of vascular plants and terrestrial vertebrates, and climatic and topographical variables. We found significant positive correlations between species richness in almost all taxa of vascular plants and terrestrial vertebrates. Multiple regression analyses indicated that plant richness was a significant predictor of richness patterns for terrestrial vertebrates (except birds), suggesting that a causal association may exist between plant diversity and vertebrate diversity in China. The mechanisms for the relationships between species richness of plants and animals are probably dependent on vertebrate groups. For mammals (endothermic vertebrates), this relationship probably represents the integrated effects of plants on animals through trophic links (i.e. providing foods) and non-trophic interactions (i.e. supplying habitats), whereas for amphibians and reptiles (ectothermic vertebrates), this may be a result of the non-trophic links, such as the effects of plants on the resources that amphibians and reptiles require.     

Phylogenetic interpretations and ecological potentials of the Mesomycetozoea (Ichthyosporea)

The Mesomycetozoea (Ichthyosporea) includes a group of fungus-like microorganisms which diverged near the animal fungus divide and is basal to the animal lineage in the Opisthokont supergroup. The composition of species within this group has changed considerably since it was reviewed by Mendoza et al. in 2002. There have been many additions to the group as a result of phylogenetic sequencing, and new species have been discovered following examination of digestive tracts of arthropods and other groups of invertebrates. Furthermore, ecological surveys and environmental sampling have revealed a high diversity of Mesomycetozoean phylotypes in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. Initially considered a group comprising mainly fish parasites, the Mesomycetozoea are now known to live in association with a wide range of host organisms including invertebrates, fish, amphibians, birds and mammals. Here we review the Mesomycetozoea and examine the broad spectrum of its ecology in the light of recent research based on sequence data, cultivation and in vivo studies.     

Towards clarifying the presence of alien algae in inland waters — can we predict places of their occurrence?

Small algae are the trophic basis in both marine and freshwater ecosystems. The identification of tiny microorganisms and place of their origin is laborious but necessary. This paper consists of a literature review of 17 species of planktonic algae, with a discussion of taxonomic problems. We also clarify whether these 17 species are non-native, invasive or cryptogenic species, with an indication whether they had been recognised as ‘alien’ in Europe. According to our observations, areas colonized by small and alien algal species, were anthropogenically altered. There were: systems with heated waters (‘heated islands’), which imitated tropical conditions; highly eutrophic to hypereutrophic water ecosystems, easily colonized by alien species, fishponds with intense fish cultivation, where alien species of fish are/had been introduced, which carried also other alien organisms; and inland water ecosystems with high salinity or high conductivity e.g. pits inundated by mine waters, imitating sea or brackish conditions acting as hubs of migration of alien species adapted to brackish or saline waters. We have prepared a map showing areas inhabited by alien species, both of documented places and hypothetical ones, where we would expect alien species to occur.     

Alien species as a driver of recent extinctions

We assessed the prevalence of alien species as a driver of recent extinctions in five major taxa (plants, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals), using data from the IUCN Red List. Our results show that alien species are the second most common threat associated with species that have gone completely extinct from these taxa since AD 1500. Aliens are the most common threat associated with extinctions in three of the five taxa analysed, and for vertebrate extinctions overall.     

Terrestrial wildlife responses to logging and fire in a Bolivian tropical humid forest

Logging and wildfire are significant anthropogenic disturbance agents in tropical forests. We compared the abundance and species richness of selected terrestrial wildlife taxa including small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and terrestrial invertebrates in areas burned by wildfire and then logged and in adjacent undisturbed areas of a tropical humid forest in Bolivia. Disturbed areas had 24% less canopy cover than undisturbed areas but had 2.6 times the cover of large woody debris. Understory cover did not differ between disturbed and undisturbed areas. Small mammal abundance and species richness in disturbed areas were 43 and 70% higher, respectively, than in adjacent undisturbed areas. Herpetofaunal abundance did not differ significantly among disturbed and undisturbed areas, but trends for higher abundance were observed for both reptiles and amphibians in disturbed areas. Herpetofaunal species richness was significantly higher in disturbed compared to undisturbed areas. Total terrestrial invertebrate abundance, as estimated by pitfall traps, was significantly higher in undisturbed compared to disturbed areas mostly due to higher abundances of Formicidae and Blattidae. However, two invertebrate groups, Orthoptera and Lepidoptera (larvae) were more abundant in disturbed areas. Wildlife conservation strategies for areas where logging or wildfire occur should take into account species- or guild-specific responses to these disturbance agents.     

A biogeographical assessment of anthropogenic threats to areas where different frog breeding groups occur in South Africa: implications for anuran conservation

Aim To determine the spatial relationship between areas where different frog breeding groups occur and elevated anthropogenic activities, and the conservation implications thereof. Location South Africa. Methods Data on frog distribution ranges for the southern African sub‐region were used to identify biogeographical areas within South Africa. A random draw technique was used to determine whether areas where different frog breeding groups occur were characterized by higher levels of anthropogenic threats than expected by chance. Four measures (human population density, percentage land transformation, percentage protected area and invasive alien plants richness) expected to reflect threats were analysed. Results Terrestrial‐breeders were more often spatially associated with areas of threat than expected by chance in three of the seven biogeographical regions examined with land transformation and invasive alien plant richness being most significant. The south central was the only region where terrestrial‐breeders were spatially congruent with protected areas. Areas where stream‐breeders occur were spatially congruent with anthropogenic threats (with alien plants being most consistent) in five of the seven regions examined while protected areas were well represented in four of the seven regions. Non‐significant results were found for permanent and temporary aquatic‐breeders at both the national and the biogeographical scale. Main conclusions By analysing data at the sub‐continental scale we were able to identify regional threats to amphibians traditionally classified at species‐specific scales. Our study recognized land transformation and alien invasive plants as significant threats to areas important for the long‐term breeding success of stream and terrestrial amphibians in South Africa. Areas where different breeding groups occur in the south‐western Cape showed the greatest spatial congruence with the threats examined. Areas where terrestrial breeding frogs occur are not well represented in the current conservation network. This has important implications in addressing the current status of threats on amphibians in a biogeographical context.     

中国外来海洋生物及其影响

到目前为止,我国已从国外引进了鱼类10种、虾类2种、贝类9种、棘皮动物1种、藻类4种进行海水养殖;引进了抗盐植物2种进行盐碱地栽培;海洋水族馆业的发展,引进了数百种观赏性海洋生物;航运业中的船体附着及压舱水排放,无意中带入了几百种外来海洋生物。首先,外来海洋入侵生物与土著海洋生物争夺生存空间与食物,危害我国土著海洋生物的生存。其次,海洋外来生物通过与亲缘关系接近的物种进行杂交,降低我国海洋土著生物的遗传质量,造成遗传污染。再次,外来海洋生物可能带来病原生物,对海洋生态环境造成巨大的危害。此外,近些年来,我国沿海赤潮越来越严重,其重要原因之一是外来生存能力较强的赤潮生物的危害。     

The diet of feral cats on islands: a review and a call for more studies

Cats are among the most successful and damaging invaders on islands and a significant driver of extinction and endangerment. Better understanding of their ecology can improve effective management actions such as eradication. We reviewed 72 studies of insular feral cat diet from 40 islands worldwide. Cats fed on a wide range of species from large birds and medium sized mammals to small insects with at least 248 species consumed (27 mammals, 113 birds, 34 reptiles, 3 amphibians, 2 fish and 69 invertebrates). Three mammals, 29 birds and 3 reptiles recorded in the diet of cats are listed as threatened by the IUCN. However, a few species of introduced mammals were the most frequent prey, and on almost all islands mammals and birds contributed most of the daily food intake. Latitude was positively correlated with the predation of rabbits and negatively with the predation of reptiles and invertebrates. Distance from landmass was positively correlated with predation on birds and negatively correlated with the predation of reptiles. The broad range of taxa consumed by feral cats on islands suggests that they have the potential to impact almost any native species, even the smallest ones under several grams, that lack behavioral, morphological or life history adaptations to mammalian predators. Insular feral cat??s reliance on introduced mammals, which evolved with cat predation, suggests that on many islands, populations of native species have already been reduced.     

Food habits of three carnivore species (Viverricula indica, Herpestes urva, and Melogale moschata) in Fushan Forest, northern Taiwan

The food habits and degrees of dietary overlap of lesser oriental civet ( Viverricula indica ), crab-eating mongoose ( Herpestes urva ), and ferret badger ( Melogale moschata ) inhabiting the Fushan Forest, northern Taiwan, were studied using faecal analysis between February 1993 and June 1994. Laboratory analysis of 154 civet faeces, and 174 mongoose faeces showed that both species fed on a wide variety of food items, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, crustaceans, insects, oligochaetes, gastropods, chilopods, arachnids, and plants. Insects, oligochaetes, plants, and mammals were the four most important food items in the civets' diet, whereas crustaceans, insects, amphibians, and reptiles were the four most important food items consumed by mongooses. Amphibians were the only vertebrates, together with invertebrates and plants, found in the 64 ferret badger faeces we analysed, and oligochaetes, insects, and amphibians were the most important food items consumed by ferret badgers. The diversity of diet was highest in the mongoose, followed by the civet, and was lowest in the ferret badger.
The degree of dietary overlap was greatest between the civet and the ferret badger, followed by that of the civet and mongoose. The mongoose and ferret badger had the lowest degree of dietary overlap. However, the degree of dietary overlap varied in different seasons. Invertebrates were the most important food source for the carnivores in Fushan Forest.     

Public health importance of Angiostrongylus cantonensis and its relatives

Species of Angiostrongylus are fairly common nematode parasites of a variety of small mammals, but some species - particularly A. cantonensis and A. costaricensis - are increasingly seen as human infections. The worms make use of a range of aquatic, amphibious or terrestrial gastropod molluscs as intermediate hosts, which become infected by ingestion of eggs shed in the faeces of infected mammals. Porotenic hosts, including crustaceans, amphibians and reptiles, are known for most Angiostrongylus species, and can also be a source of the infective third-stage larvae that initiate mammalian infections.     

广州外来入侵植物

根据野外调查及相关文献资料,初步探讨了广州市外来入侵植物的种类组成、分布生境、生长特性、危害以及来源.结果表明:广州市现有外来人侵植物73种,隶属于27科59属,其中菊科(19种)、禾本科(8种)、豆科(7种)和苋科(7种)植物占了入侵植物总种数的56.2%.生活型分析发现,在广州有分布的外来入侵植物中,陆生草本植物最多(58种),其次为灌木(10种)、水生草本(3种),乔木种类最少(2种),它们主要生长在人类干扰比较频繁的低海拔地区.另外,基于对外来入侵植物目前在野外的生长和分布状况等生态学特性进行分析,可大致将它们对本地生物多样性危害程度分为3级,其中危害严重的有11种,危害中等的有25种,危害较轻的有37种.从原产地分析来看,61种来自于热带美洲地区,占广州外来入侵植物总种数的83.6%.与国内其他地区外来入侵植物进行比较发现,广州和广西共有种数最多,有62种,然而,对已经造成严重危害的外来植物种类,在数量上广州与香港、深圳和广西相同种类较多,分别有8种、7种和6种.对广州市目前外来植物的入侵风险(潜在威胁)的评估结果表明,对一些在其它地区已经造成严重危害的外来植物,应当加强监控,防止入侵扩散并造成重大生态灾难.还对广州市外来植物入侵的主要途径及防治策略做了简要分析和说明.     

Invasive mammals in Cuba: an overview

Invasive mammals in Cuba have a negative impact on the conservation of endemic fauna. Rats, mice, mongooses, cats, dogs, among others, pose a threat to the conservation of the Cuban solenodon, the capromyid rodents, and many species of birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates. The current state of introduced and invasive mammal species in Cuba, their impact, available information about their introduction, habits, field observations, distribution, etc., is reviewed. A total of 29 species of invasive mammals in 40 islands of the Cuban Archipelago are reported; the black rat, dog, cat, mouse, mongoose, pig, goat, brown rat, and cattle are the most important. A control policy on invasive species of mammals is urgently needed for the conservation of the fauna of the Cuban Archipelago.     

Alien Grazing: Indirect Effects of Muskrats on Invertebrates

Effects of alien herbivores on plants are quite well known, especially on oceanic islands. Much less is known about the indirect effects of alien herbivores. Via indirect effects indigenous organisms can become more vulnerable to other ecological factors. We studied the effect of dense muskrat population on aquatic invertebrates in patches, which were in different succession phases after grazing. The succession was divided into three phases:(i) open-water area, (ii) mixed floating and submerged vegetation, and (iii) undisturbed Equisetum stands. Intensive muskrat grazing affected especially the size distribution of invertebrates. The proportion of small invertebrates was greatest in clear-cut areas, whereas that of large invertebrates was greatest in the Equisetum-stands. According to activity traps, the clear-cut areas harboured good populations of small perch, which are known as invertebrate predators. The study showed that the indirect effects of alien herbivore can be considerable. In this case, they seemed to be mediated to invertebrates through the change in vegetative habitat structure. This change rendered invertebrates more vulnerable to fish predation.