植物甾醇生理功能的线粒体调控机制

植物甾醇是一类在植物中广泛存在的生物活性物质,在食品、医药、化妆品等领域具有广阔应用前景.植物甾醇作为胆固醇类似物可抑制胆固醇肠道吸收进而降低血液中胆固醇水平、降低心血管疾病风险;此外,植物甾醇还具有抑癌、抗炎退热、抗氧化和类激素等多种功能.从亚细胞及分子水平深入探究植物甾醇的生物作用机制有助于充分开发植物甾醇的应用价值.线粒体是细胞能量物质代谢最重要的场所,胆固醇代谢、癌细胞增殖与凋亡、氧化应激和炎症反应等都与线粒体功能密切相关.近年来研究提示植物甾醇可在多种模型中调控线粒体功能,这可能是植物甾醇发挥各种生物学功能的重要潜在机制.本文将首先整理归纳植物甾醇生物学功能,并在此基础上详细讨论其线粒体相关调控机制,以期为领域内基础研究者提供前沿思路和进展报告,并为植物甾醇的应用提供参考依据.     

三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体和细胞胆固醇外排

胆固醇是细胞质膜的重要组成成分。然而,过多的胆固醇累积可导致细胞中毒。异常的胆固醇胞内迁移与蓄积是造成许多心血管疾病如动脉粥样硬化的分子基础。细胞内胆固醇稳态由胆固醇的吸收、合成及外排等一系列过程调控。在哺乳动物细胞中,调节胆固醇合成、吸收和外排是维持体内胆固醇平衡的必要生理过程。本综述着重概述了三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体(ABC)家族,如ABCA1、ABCG1、ABCG5和ABCG8的细胞功能及生理作用,以及这些转运体在调控胆固醇胞外转运中的分子机制。     

ABCG5和ABCG8在胆囊胆固醇结石形成中的作用

腺苷三磷酸结合盒转运体G5和G8(ATP binding cassette transport G5,ABCG5和ATP binding cassette transport G8,ABCG8)位于构成管腔的细胞膜一端,使进入细胞内的固醇泵出到细胞外,参与胆固醇逆向转运(RCT)．在减少小肠和促进肝脏排泄固醇过程中发挥重要作用。突变后导致机体固醇蓄积,血浆固醇水平升高。ABCG5和ABCG8是促进胆囊胆固醇结石形成的关键因素。激动核受体LXR、RXR和FXR的途径对ABCG5和ABCG8的表达具有调控作用。     

调控胆固醇吸收的分子通路

机体内的胆固醇失衡会引发多种疾病,如高胆固醇血症、心脑血管疾病等,而其平衡由胆固醇的合成、吸收、代谢和循环共同维持,其中胆固醇的吸收至关重要。胆固醇的吸收主要发生在小肠和近段空肠,受众多蛋白的调控。尼曼-匹克C1样蛋白1(NPC1L1)负责胆固醇的摄取;ATP结合盒转运蛋白(ABCG5/ABCG8)则抑制胆固醇的吸收,酰基辅酶A-胆固醇酰基转移酶(ACAT)催化胆固醇脂化提高胆固醇吸收;ATP结合盒转运蛋白A1(ABCA1)负责外周组织胆固醇的转运,而这些蛋白又受到其他调控因子的影响。解析胆固醇吸收的分子通路对胆固醇失衡相关疾病的预防及治疗具有重大指导意义。因此,本文就调控胆固醇吸收的分子通路进行综述。     

转运蛋白ABCG1/4 和ABCA1对脑胆固醇的调节作用

脑是富含胆固醇的器官,机体大约有25%的胆固醇集中在脑组织中.ATP结合盒超家族转运蛋白对脑组织中胆固醇的膜外转运和动态平衡起着重要的调节作用.研究发现,ATP结合盒超家族转运蛋白亚体ABCG1、ABCG4和ABCA1在成体脑组织中存在不同程度的表达,一种或多种亚体的缺失可以导致神经退行性病变.然而,ATP结合盒超家族转运蛋白亚体对脑发育过程中脑胆固醇动态变化的调节缺乏相关性的报道.在本研究中,从低胆固醇饮食喂养的C57BL/6J小鼠中获取出生后不同发育时期的脑组织,对ABCG1、ABCG4和ABCA1的mRNA与蛋白质表达水平进行测定,并对脑组织和血清中ATP结合盒超家族转运蛋白的表达水平与胆固醇水平的相关性进行研究.同时,使用ABCG1、ABCG4单一基因敲除鼠和ABCG1、ABCG4双基因敲除鼠,研究ATP结合盒超家族转运蛋白对与胆固醇合成的相关基因表达的影响以及对脑组织胆固醇代谢的调节作用.结果发现,ABCG1、ABCG4和ABCA1在机体多个器官中均有表达,但ABCG1和ABCG4在小鼠脑组织中表达量最高.在脑组织发育过程中,ABCG1和ABCG4mRNA水平呈现明显的表达时效性,小鼠于出生后42天达到峰值,而ABCA1 mRNA的表达水平无明显变化.血清和脑组织中中酯化型胆固醇水平呈双高峰分布,也于出生后42天达到最高.基因敲除鼠模型显示,单一敲除ABCG1或者ABCG4基因对脑组织胆固醇水平无明显影响,而ABCG1和ABCG4基因的同时缺失导致脑胆固醇水平显著升高,并明显降低胆固醇合成相关基因的表达水平.本研究表明,在脑发育成熟过程中,ATP结合盒超家族转运蛋白亚体ABCG1和ABCG4,而非ABCA1,以调节脑胆固醇的膜外转运;ABCG1和ABCG4互补调控脑胆固醇的动态平衡.     

植物氮素吸收与转运的研究进展

氮素是植物生长发育所必须的基本营养元素,在植物生长发育和形态建成中起着重要作用.土壤中植物所利用的主要氮素形式是铵态氮和硝态氮,在进化过程中植物形成不同的吸收和转运铵态氮和硝态氮的分子机制.该文对植物吸收与转运氮素的生理学特征、分子机制及涉及的相关基因等研究进行概括性综述,为研究水稻中氮素吸收、转运相关基因提供理论基础...     

普罗布考通过调控ABCA1、SR-BⅠ、ABCG5、ABCG8表达及抗炎作用抑制高胆固醇血症兔动脉粥样硬化（英文）

作为一种有效的降脂药物,普罗布考能够降低血浆高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(HDL-C)水平并抑制动脉粥样硬化,但其机制尚未完全阐明.本研究的目的旨在进一步阐明普罗布考降脂及抗动脉粥样硬化的机理.将新西兰白兔随机分为4组:正常饮食组、正常饮食+普罗布考组、高脂饮食组(HFD组)、高脂饮食+普罗布考组(HFD+P组).结果显示,处理7周后,与HFD组比较,H FD+P组动脉粥样硬化病变程度、肝脏脂质蓄积明显减轻,血浆甘油三脂、总胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇及HDL-C水平降低,肝脏中清道夫受体-BⅠ(SR-BⅠ)以及肝脏与小肠中三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体(ABC)G5(ABCG5)、ABCG8表达上调,肝脏中A BCA1表达下调,主动脉弓与血浆肿瘤坏死因子α、白介素1、白介素6、单核趋化蛋白1水平降低.这些结果表明普罗布考的抗动脉粥样硬化作用可能与其调控A BCA1、SR-BⅠ、ABCG5、ABCG8表达及抑制促炎介质的分泌有关.     

植物甾醇·甾烷醇及其降血清胆固醇的作用

植物甾醇.甾烷醇在自然界广泛分布,以游离型、脂肪酸酯或糖苷形式存在。植物甾醇.甾烷醇能抑制小肠内胆固醇的吸收,具有降低血清胆固醇的作用。由于其来源于天然植物,且吸收率很低,因此具有很高的安全性。本文对植物甾醇.甾烷醇的降血清胆固醇作用做一综述。     

植物甾醇在植物逆境胁迫中的研究进展

植物甾醇是一类重要的生理活性物质,对植物的生长发育具有重要作用,对响应植物逆境胁迫也具有重要功能.植物甾醇是细胞膜和脂质筏的重要组分,与膜的稳定性密切相关,主要通过甾醇含量的相对变化维持膜的稳定性及影响脂质筏的生物功能响应逆境胁迫.植物甾醇作为信号分子参与逆境胁迫中的信号传导,油菜素内酯类(BRs)是植物甾醇合成途径的重要产物,作为一种重要的信号分子调控植物甾醇合成酶基因的表达以响应逆境胁迫.     

研究: 普罗布考通过调控ABCA1、SR-BⅠ、ABCG5、ABCG8表达及抗炎作用抑制高胆固醇血症兔动脉粥样硬化

作为一种有效的降脂药物,普罗布考能够降低血浆高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(HDL-C)水平并抑制动脉粥样硬化,但其机制尚未完全阐明．本研究的目的旨在进一步阐明普罗布考降脂及抗动脉粥样硬化的机理．将新西兰白兔随机分为4组：正常饮食组、正常饮食+普罗布考组、高脂饮食组(HFD组)、高脂饮食+普罗布考组(HFD+P组)．结果显示,处理7周后,与HFD组比较,HFD+P组动脉粥样硬化病变程度、肝脏脂质蓄积明显减轻,血浆甘油三脂、总胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇及HDL-C 水平降低,肝脏中清道夫受体-BⅠ(SR-BⅠ)以及肝脏与小肠中三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体(ABC)G5(ABCG5)、ABCG8表达上调,肝脏中ABCA1表达下调,主动脉弓与血浆肿瘤坏死因子α、白介素1、白介素6、单核趋化蛋白1水平降低．这些结果表明普罗布考的抗动脉粥样硬化作用可能与其调控ABCA1、SR-BⅠ、ABCG5、ABCG8表达及抑制促炎介质的分泌有关．     

Genetic regulation of cholesterol absorption and plasma plant sterol levels: commonalities and differences

The molecular basis of the processes that control two closely related traits, the absorption of cholesterol from the intestines and plasma plant sterol levels, are only partially understood. The discovery that mutations in two novel hemitransporters, ATP binding cassette transporter G5 (ABCG5) and ABCG8, underlie a rare inborn error in plant sterol metabolism, beta-sitosterolemia, represents a major breakthrough in this field. More recently, genetic studies in the mouse that mapped loci in linkage with cholesterol absorption and plasma plant sterol levels and studies in humans that examined the relationship of plasma plant sterol levels to sequence variation in the ABCG5/ABCG8 locus suggested the involvement of other genes. Moreover, studies in beta-sitosterolemic patients, in ABCG5/ABCG8-targeted animals, and on a newly developed cholesterol absorption inhibitor, ezetimibe, suggest commonalities and differences in the regulation of the two traits. This review summarizes the evidence for genetic control of cholesterol absorption and plasma plant sterol levels, presents the evidence for commonalities and differences between the two traits, and discusses recent developments and future perspectives in this field.     

Hepatic ABCG5 and ABCG8 overexpression increases hepatobiliary sterol transport but does not alter aortic atherosclerosis in transgenic mice

The individual roles of hepatic versus intestinal ABCG5 and ABCG8 in sterol transport have not yet been investigated. To determine the specific contribution of liver ABCG5/G8 to sterol transport and atherosclerosis, we generated transgenic mice that overexpress human ABCG5 and ABCG8 in the liver but not intestine (liver G5/G8-Tg) in three different genetic backgrounds: C57Bl/6, apoE-KO, and low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLr)-KO. Hepatic overexpression of ABCG5/G8 enhanced hepatobiliary secretion of cholesterol and plant sterols by 1.5-2-fold, increased the amount of intestinal cholesterol available for absorption and fecal excretion by up to 27%, and decreased the accumulation of plant sterols in plasma by approximately 25%. However, it did not alter fractional intestinal cholesterol absorption, fecal neutral sterol excretion, hepatic cholesterol concentrations, or hepatic cholesterol synthesis. Consequently, overexpression of ABCG5/G8 in only the liver had no effect on the plasma lipid profile, including cholesterol, HDL-C, and non-HDL-C, or on the development of proximal aortic atherosclerosis in C57Bl/6, apoE-KO, or LDLr-KO mice. Thus, liver ABCG5/G8 facilitate the secretion of liver sterols into bile and serve as an alternative mechanism, independent of intestinal ABCG5/G8, to protect against the accumulation of dietary plant sterols in plasma. However, in the absence of changes in fractional intestinal cholesterol absorption, increased secretion of sterols into bile induced by hepatic overexpression of ABCG5/G8 was not sufficient to alter hepatic cholesterol balance, enhance cholesterol removal from the body or to alter atherogenic risk in liver G5/G8-Tg mice. These findings demonstrate that overexpression of ABCG5/G8 in the liver profoundly alters hepatic but not intestinal sterol transport, identifying distinct roles for liver and intestinal ABCG5/G8 in modulating sterol metabolism.     

Ezetimibe normalizes metabolic defects in mice lacking ABCG5 and ABCG8

The ATP binding cassette transporters ABCG5 (G5) and ABCG8 (G8) limit the accumulation of neutral sterols by restricting sterol uptake from the intestine and promoting sterol excretion into bile. Humans and mice lacking G5 and G8 (G5G8-/-) accumulate plant sterols in the blood and tissues. However, despite impaired biliary cholesterol secretion, plasma and liver cholesterol levels are lower in G5G8-/- mice than in wild-type littermates. To determine whether the observed changes in hepatic sterol metabolism were a direct result of decreased biliary sterol secretion or a metabolic consequence of the accumulation of dietary noncholesterol sterols, we treated G5G8-/- mice with ezetimibe, a drug that reduces the absorption of both plant- and animal-derived sterols. Ezetimibe feeding for 1 month sharply decreased sterol absorption and plasma levels of sitosterol and campesterol but increased cholesterol in both the plasma (from 60.4 to 75.2 mg/dl) and the liver (from 1.1 to 1.87 mg/g) of the ezetimibe-treated G5G8-/- mice. Paradoxically, the increase in hepatic cholesterol was associated with an increase in mRNA levels of HMG-CoA reductase and synthase. Together, these results indicate that pharmacological blockade of sterol absorption can ameliorate the deleterious metabolic effects of plant sterols even in the absence of G5 and G8.     

Phytosterolemia on the island of Kosrae: founder effect for a novel ABCG8 mutation results in high carrier rate and increased plasma plant sterol levels

Screening of 932 adults on the Pacific island of Kosrae for plasma plant sterol levels disclosed three subjects, two of them asymptomatic, with phytosterolemia. Sequencing the ATP binding cassette subfamily G member 8 (ABCG8) gene revealed a novel exon 2 mutation that causes a change in codon 24 from glutamine to histidine and a frame shift followed by a premature stop codon, precluding the formation of a functional ABCG8 protein. Genotyping of 1,090 Kosraens revealed 150 as carriers, a 13.8% carrier rate. DNA sequencing of 67 carriers revealed the same mutation as in the probands. In carriers, plasma campesterol and sitosterol levels were 55% and 30% higher, respectively, than in noncarriers. Moreover, compared with noncarriers, carriers showed 21% lower plasma levels of lathosterol, a surrogate marker for cholesterol biosynthesis. There was no difference between the groups in plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B, or apolipoprotein A-I levels. In summary, on the island of Kosrae, a strong founder effect of a mutant ABCG8 allele results in a large number of carriers with increased plasma plant sterol levels and decreased lathosterol levels. The latter finding suggests that heterozygosity for a mutated ABCG8 allele results in a modest increase in dietary cholesterol absorption and a decrease in cholesterol biosynthesis.     

Selective sterol accumulation in ABCG5/ABCG8-deficient mice

The ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters ABCG5 and ABCG8 limit intestinal absorption and promote biliary secretion of neutral sterols. Mutations in either gene cause sitosterolemia, a rare recessive disease in which plasma and tissue levels of several neutral sterols are increased to varying degrees. To determine why patients with sitosterolemia preferentially accumulate noncholesterol sterols, levels of cholesterol and the major plant sterols were compared in plasma, liver, bile, and brain of wild-type and ABCG5/ABCG8-deficient (G5G8(-/-)) mice. The total sterol content of liver and plasma was similar in G5G8(-/-) mice and wild-type animals despite an approximately 30-fold increase in noncholesterol sterol levels in the knockout animals. The relative enrichment of each sterol in the plasma and liver of G5G8(-/-) mice (stigmasterol > sitosterol = cholestanol > bassicasterol > campesterol > cholesterol) reflected its relative enrichment in the bile of wild-type mice. These results indicate that 24-alkylated, Delta22, and 5alpha-reduced sterols are preferentially secreted into bile and that preferential biliary secretion of noncholesterol sterols by ABCG5 and ABCG8 prevents the accumulation of these sterols in normal animals. The mRNA levels for 13 enzymes in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway were reduced in the livers of the G5G8(-/-) mice, despite a 50% reduction in hepatic cholesterol level. Thus, the accumulation of sterols other than cholesterol is sensed by the cholesterol regulatory machinery.     

Genetic basis of sitosterolemia

The molecular mechanisms regulating the amount of dietary cholesterol retained by the body, as well as the body's ability to exclude other dietary sterols selectively, are poorly understood. An average Western diet will contain approximately 250-500 mg of dietary cholesterol and approximately 200-400 mg of non-cholesterol sterols, of which plant sterols are the major constituents. Approximately 50-60% of dietary cholesterol is absorbed and retained by the normal human body, but less than 1% of the non-cholesterol sterols are retained. There thus exists a subtle mechanism that allows the body to distinguish between cholesterol and non-cholesterol sterols. In sitosterolemia, a rare autosomal recessive disorder, affected individuals hyperabsorb and retain not only cholesterol but also all other sterols, including plant and shellfish sterols from the intestine. Consequently, patients with this disease have very high levels of plant sterols in the plasma, and develop tendon and tuberous xanthomas, accelerated atherosclerosis, and premature coronary artery disease. The STSL locus has been mapped to human chromosome 2p21. Mutations in two tandem ABC genes, ABCG5 and ABCG8, encoding sterolin-1 and -2, respectively, are now known to be mutant in sitosterolemia. The identification of these genes should now lead to a better understanding of the molecular mechanism(s) governing the highly selective absorption and retention of cholesterol by the body. Indeed, it is the very existence of this disease that has given credence to the hypothesis that there is a molecular pathway that regulates dietary cholesterol absorption and sterol excretion by the body.     

Structural Analysis of Cholesterol Binding and Sterol Selectivity by ABCG5/G8

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) sterol transporters are responsible for maintaining cholesterol homeostasis in mammals by participating in reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) or transintestinal cholesterol efflux (TICE). The heterodimeric ABCG5/G8 carries out selective sterol excretion, preventing the abnormal accumulation of plant sterols in human bodies, while homodimeric ABCG1 contributes to the biogenesis and metabolism of high-density lipoproteins. A sterol-binding site on ABCG5/G8 was proposed at the interface of the transmembrane domain and the core of lipid bilayers. In this study, we have determined the crystal structure of ABCG5/G8 in a cholesterol-bound state. The structure combined with amino acid sequence analysis shows that in the proximity of the sterol-binding site, a highly conserved phenylalanine array supports functional implications for ABCG cholesterol/sterol transporters. Lastly, in silico docking analysis of cholesterol and stigmasterol (a plant sterol) suggests sterol-binding selectivity on ABCG5/G8, but not ABCG1. Together, our results provide a structural basis for cholesterol binding on ABCG5/G8 and the sterol selectivity by ABCG transporters.     

Heritability of plasma noncholesterol sterols and relationship to DNA sequence polymorphism in ABCG5 and ABCG8

The plasma concentrations of cholesterol precursor sterols and plant sterols vary over a 5- to 10-fold range among normolipidemic individuals, and provide indices of the relative rates of cholesterol synthesis and fractional absorption. In the present study, we examined the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to variation in the plasma concentrations and sterol-cholesterol ratios of five noncholesterol sterols, including the 5alpha-saturated derivative of cholesterol (cholestanol), two precursors in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway (desmosterol and lathosterol), and two phytosterols (campesterol and sitosterol). Plasma sterol concentrations were highly stable in 30 individuals measured over a 48 week period. Regression of offspring sterol levels on the parental values indicated that plasma levels of all five noncholesterol sterols were highly heritable. Analysis of monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs also indicated strong heritability of all five sterols. Two common sequence variations (D19H and T400K) in ABCG8, an ABC half-transporter defective in sitosterolemia, were associated with lower concentrations of plant sterols in parents, and in their offspring.Taken together, these findings indicate that variation in the plasma concentrations of noncholesterol sterols is highly heritable, and that polymorphism in ABCG8 contributes to genetic variation in the plasma concentrations of plant sterols.     

Common sequence variations in ABCG8 are related to plant sterol metabolism in healthy volunteers

Polymorphisms in the ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters ABCG5 and ABCG8 are related to plasma plant sterol concentrations. It is not known whether these polymorphisms are also associated with variations in serum plant sterol concentrations during interventions affecting plant sterol metabolism. We therefore decided to study changes in serum plant sterol concentrations with ABCG5/G8 polymorphisms after consumption of plant stanol esters, which decrease plasma plant sterol concentrations. Cholesterol-standardized serum campesterol and sitosterol concentrations were significantly associated with the ABCG8 T400K genotype, as were changes in serum plant sterol concentrations after consumption of plant stanols. The reduction of -57.1 +/- 38.3 10(2) x micromol/mmol cholesterol for sitosterol in TT subjects was significantly greater compared with the -36.0 +/- 18.7 reduction in subjects with the TK genotype (P = 0.021) and the -16.9 +/- 13.0 reduction in subjects with the KK genotype (P = 0.047). Changes in serum campesterol concentrations showed a comparable association. No association with serum LDL cholesterol was found. Genetic variation in ABCG8 not only explains cross-sectional differences in serum plant sterol concentrations but also determines a subject's responsiveness to changes in serum plant sterols during interventions known to affect plant sterol metabolism.     

ATP-binding cassette transporter G1 and lipid homeostasis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review briefly discusses the ATP-binding cassette transporter G (ABCG) family members and emphasizes recent studies that identify ABCG1 as a key regulator of cellular lipid homeostasis. RECENT FINDINGS: The in-vivo importance of ABCG1 has recently been demonstrated with both loss-of-function and gain-of-function studies in mice. Administration of a diet high in both fat and cholesterol to ABCG1 mice results in massive cholesterol accumulation in both the liver and lungs. In contrast, lipid accumulation is greatly attenuated in transgenic mice that express both the murine and human ABCG1 genes. Despite the observed tissue lipid accumulation, plasma lipid levels and lipoprotein cholesterol distribution are not significantly different between wild-type, ABCG1, and hABCG1 transgenic mice. Other studies show that ABCG1 expression is induced following activation of the nuclear receptor LXR and that over expression of ABCG1 results in increased efflux of cellular cholesterol to HDL or phospholipid vesicles. SUMMARY: The ABCG1 transporter plays a key role in regulating cellular cholesterol and lipid homeostasis. Elucidation of the molecular mechanism by which ABCG1 controls sterol flux should provide critical information that may link ABCG1 to the reverse cholesterol transport pathway or diseases such as atherosclerosis.