野化培训大熊猫采食和人为砍伐对拐棍竹无性系种群结构的影响

2003—2007年,采用样方法和定位观察法测量了卧龙自然保护区拐棍竹无性系种群密度、地径和高度,研究野化培训大熊猫采食和人为砍伐对拐棍竹无性系种群更新的影响;并用Weibull概率密度分布函数的尺度和形状参数比较分析了不同处理方式(大熊猫采食、人为砍伐和对照)对拐棍竹无性系种群结构(年龄、径级和高度级)的影响.结果表明:在相同种群数量和环境条件的基础上,大熊猫采食和人为砍伐有利于拐棍竹的无性系更新,经过3年多的自然恢复,竹子的种群密度趋于一致,并达到较稳定的状态.大熊猫采食样方的拐棍竹径级和高度级分布曲线、尺度参数和形状参数与对照样方无明显差异;而人为砍伐样方的分布曲线大多呈倒"J"型,且尺度参数和形状参数均明显小于大熊猫采食和对照样方,当年生竹笋和多年生竹的生长质量远不及大熊猫采食影响下的竹子种群,难以达到大熊猫取食的选择标准.     

2008年汶川地震后拐棍竹无性系种群的更新状况及影响因子

为揭示2008年汶川地震后大熊猫主食竹拐棍竹无性系种群的天然更新状况及影响因子,研究了3种不同地震干扰强度(强度、中度和对照)生境中拐棍竹的生长和发笋状况.结果表明:在3种生境中,拐棍竹存活笋的基径为中度干扰和对照生境显著大于强度干扰生境,存活笋的高度为对照＞中度干扰＞强度干扰.其发笋密度在3种生境中无显著差异,但强度和中度干扰生境中的存活笋密度显著大于对照,并且1年生和2年生竹密度与死亡竹密度之间呈极显著正相关.拐棍竹的发笋密度、存活笋密度、1年生、2年生和多年生竹密度之间均呈显著正相关,1年生和2年生竹密度与砾石和滑坡土壤盖度呈显著负相关,存活笋密度与郁闭度之间呈显著负相关.     

汶川地震对大熊猫主食竹——拐棍竹竹笋生长发育的影响

为了了解汶川地震对大熊猫主食竹生长发育的影响,2009年10月—2011年4月,在地震重灾区四川龙溪-虹口国家级自然保护区内设置150个样方,就地震强度、中度、轻度干扰对大熊猫主食竹拐棍竹(Fargesia robusta)竹笋生长发育的影响进行了研究。研究结果显示:(1)发笋物候上,地震强度干扰的发笋时间(Julian时间)较中度和轻度干扰显著推迟,而发笋期不受影响。(2)发笋量和当年生幼竹数是拐棍竹更新生长的数量指标。地震强度和中度干扰样方的发笋量都显著高于轻度干扰,而发笋量在强度和中度干扰间差异不显著;地震强度干扰样方的当年生幼竹数显著高于中度和轻度干扰,中度和轻度干扰样方间差异不显著。这说明地震的强度和中度干扰都有利于拐棍竹竹笋和当年生幼竹数量的更新。(3)基径和株高是拐棍竹更新生长的质量指标。强度干扰下拐棍竹的基径和株高都显著小于中度和轻度干扰,中度干扰样方的基径与轻度干扰差异不显著,但株高显著矮于轻度干扰样方。表明强度干扰下拐棍竹的质量最差,中度干扰的基径已基本得到恢复,但株高仍受到抑制。(4)地震不同干扰等级拐棍竹退笋原因划分为:外力机械损伤、动物取食、生长停止、其他4种。对地震不同干扰等级拐棍竹退笋原因比率的分析发现,强度干扰样方因外力机械损伤和生长停止退笋的比率显著高于中度和轻度干扰样方,而因动物取食退笋的比率显著低于中度和轻度干扰样方。证明强度干扰样方的竹笋更容易受到外力机械损伤和生长停止退笋,而中度和轻度干扰的竹笋更倾向于动物取食致退,揭示了拐棍竹的生长是与震后不同程度的干扰相适应的。     

大熊猫对冷箭竹更新竹林与残存竹林的选择利用及微生境结构的比较

在四川卧龙国家级自然保护区大熊猫Ailuropoda melanoleuca活动密集的"五一棚"区域,设置固定监测样线,定期收集大熊猫在冷箭竹更新竹林和残存竹林中的活动痕迹和生境数据。通过路线监测和样地调查,"五一棚"区域拐棍竹和冷箭竹为海拔梯度分布,2700 m以下为拐棍竹林,2300~3600 m之间为冷箭竹林;冷箭竹的更新竹林和残存竹林呈镶嵌耦合分布,从而有利于大熊猫的季节迁徙、食物转换和面对冷箭竹的开花枯死和自然更新。2012年9月—2013年11月的监测数据表明野生大熊猫主要生活于更新竹林中,利用率达到91.94%,且不同月份之间具有波动性(P<0.05)。比较更新竹林和残存竹林的微生境结构,发现两者之间除小部分变量之外(坡度、灌木层盖度、草本层盖度、竹笋密度、成竹密度、种群密度和枯死竹密度),其余各变量之间差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05),且竹子质量(地径、株高和生物量)达到大熊猫选择利用的标准。     

缺苞箭竹(Fargesia denudata)和拐棍竹(F.robusta)的饲用品质差异

缺苞箭竹(Fargesia denudata)和拐棍竹(F.robusta)分别是岷山和邛崃山山系野生大熊猫取食频率最高的竹种。本文以四川王朗自然保护区的缺苞箭竹和卧龙自然保护区的拐棍竹为研究对象,通过比较其营养成分、单宁和总酚含量,明确二者的饲用品质差异,以期为野生大熊猫潜在栖息地、廊道以及人工纯林等建设的竹种选择提供依据。结果表明:(1)缺苞箭竹的粗蛋白和粗纤维含量显著优于拐棍竹(P<0.05);(2)拐棍竹的笋、茎的钙和笋、叶磷含量显著优于缺苞箭竹(P<0.05);(3)氨基酸总量、单宁和总酚含量,拐棍竹的叶均更优(P<0.05),但缺苞箭竹的笋、茎单宁含量更优(P<0.05),且缺苞箭竹的笋总酚含量、茎氨基酸总量含量均更优(P<0.05);(4)粗脂肪含量,缺苞箭竹的茎、拐棍竹的笋和叶的含量稍优,但不显著(P>0.05)。两竹种在营养成分、单宁和总酚含量上的饲用价值各有优劣,配合食用,粗蛋白、氨基酸总量、钙和磷可形成互补,并减少单宁、总酚的摄入。鉴于两竹为大熊猫喜食竹种,可作为野生大熊猫潜在栖息地、廊道和人工纯林建设的竹种,在岷山和邛崃山山系的相关区域混合栽种。     

缺苞箭竹(Fargesia denudata)和拐棍竹(F.robusta)的饲用品质差异

缺苞箭竹(Fargesia denudata)和拐棍竹(F. robusta)分别是岷山和邛崃山山系野生大熊猫取食频率最高的竹种。本文以四川王朗自然保护区的缺苞箭竹和卧龙自然保护区的拐棍竹为研究对象,通过比较其营养成分、单宁和总酚含量,明确二者的饲用品质差异,以期为野生大熊猫潜在栖息地、廊道以及人工纯林等建设的竹种选择提供依据。结果表明:(1)缺苞箭竹的粗蛋白和粗纤维含量显著优于拐棍竹(P0.05);(2)拐棍竹的笋、茎的钙和笋、叶磷含量显著优于缺苞箭竹(P0.05);(3)氨基酸总量、单宁和总酚含量,拐棍竹的叶均更优(P0.05),但缺苞箭竹的笋、茎单宁含量更优(P0.05),且缺苞箭竹的笋总酚含量、茎氨基酸总量含量均更优(P0.05);(4)粗脂肪含量,缺苞箭竹的茎、拐棍竹的笋和叶的含量稍优,但不显著(P0.05)。两竹种在营养成分、单宁和总酚含量上的饲用价值各有优劣,配合食用,粗蛋白、氨基酸总量、钙和磷可形成互补,并减少单宁、总酚的摄入。鉴于两竹为大熊猫喜食竹种,可作为野生大熊猫潜在栖息地、廊道和人工纯林建设的竹种,在岷山和邛崃山山系的相关区域混合栽种。     

野化培训大熊猫的食性及其对拐棍竹的选择利用

本文采用动物行为随机观察法、粪便分类收集法、样方法以及SPSS统计软件等方法,调查和分析了2003年7月至2004年9月卧龙自然保护区大熊猫“祥祥”在野化培训圈中的食性及对拐棍竹的选择利用。结果表明：野化培训大熊猫“祥祥”主要取食培训圈中的拐棍竹竹笋及其成竹、幼竹、半枯竹的竹秆和枝叶,少量采食短锥玉山竹,并偶尔寻食培训圈中的青草和鞘柄菝葜等植物。食性季节变化具有与野生大熊猫相似的动态规律,9～12月主要以拐棍竹枝叶为食,1～4月取食成竹竹秆,5月大量啃食当年新笋,6～8月则喜食幼竹竹秆。同时,“祥祥”对拐棍竹粗细的利用表现出较为明显的选择性,一般取食基径大于12mm以上的竹子,对基径很小的竹子不喜欢或拒绝利用,而不同龄级竹子的选择略有差异。     

卧龙自然保护区大熊猫对拐棍竹笋的选择与利用

拐棍竹是卧龙野生大熊猫春季的主要食物。2014-2016年,从设置的3条固定样线中我们发现了当地野生大熊猫有分段取食拐棍竹笋的现象,且没有到放牧活动和人为干扰严重的河谷区域取食竹林内的拐棍竹笋。它们首先在海拔较低( 2 100 m左右)、新笋发育较早且人为干扰不严重的区域觅食,当这些区域的新笋普遍超过2 m高度时会向海拔较高处迁移。大熊猫优先选择有较高比例粗大竹笋的区域作为觅食场所,且当觅食斑块内新笋普遍较小时对粗笋有倾向性选择(P<0.05),但当环境中的新笋质量较好时,选择性有所降低(P>0.05)。大熊猫在新笋质量较好的觅食斑块中取食率较高,在海拔较高处因竹笋的基径较小所以取食率较低(F=20.12, P<0.05)。大熊猫取食新笋所留残桩高度与周边竹笋的高度呈正比(r=0.50, P<0.001)。为保证大熊猫在新笋期的觅食活动免遭干扰,管理者应该在这一时期严格限制大熊猫活动频繁区域的人为干扰。     

相岭山系大、小熊猫主食竹类峨热竹的生长发育与环境因子间的相互关系

1994～1996年,在相岭山系冕宁县治勒自然保护区设点,对大熊猫和小熊猫主食竹类峨热竹与其它环境生态因子间的相互关系进行了长达3a的研究。研究结果表明,峨热竹的生长发育与环境生态因子如海拔、郁闭度、坡度和坡向之间有极其显著的相关关系,环境因子对其株高、基径、密度、发笋率、老笋比例和成竹死亡率等有较大的影响。随海拔高度的增加,竹子变矮变细,老笋比例下降;上层乔木郁闭度增加,竹子变稀,发笋率、老笋比例和成竹死亡率均降低。坡度增大,竹子变稀并且细而矮。阳坡的竹子率发笋高于阴坡。     

采笋对大熊猫主食竹八月竹竹笋生长的影响

采笋是大熊猫栖息地内一种持续的人类干扰活动。为了评估采笋对大熊猫主食竹竹笋生长发育的影响,2009年7—11月,在四川省洪雅县瓦屋山镇设置实验样方,对比研究了早期采笋、中期采笋、晚期采笋、一直采笋和不采笋5种采笋方式对大熊猫主食竹八月竹竹笋生长和发育的影响。结果表明:1)早期采笋、中期采笋和一直采笋样方的发笋量显著高于不采笋样方(P0.05),其发笋量分别是不采笋的1.53倍,1.57倍和1.62倍;晚期采笋样方发笋量与不采笋样方差异不显著(P0.05)。2)早期采笋使八月竹在发笋早期和发笋中期的发笋量增加,中期采笋仅使八月竹在发笋中期的发笋量增加,而一直采笋使八月竹在整个发笋期的各个阶段的发笋量均显著增加(P0.05)。3)一直采笋样方的幼竹数量、株高均显著低于其他采笋样方,其基径只显著低于不采笋样方(P0.05);早期、中期、晚期采笋和不采笋样方相互间仅幼竹株高差异显著(P0.05)。4)早期、中期和晚期采笋与不采笋样方的发笋总量、退笋总量和采笋总量相互之间均呈显著正相关(P0.05)。建议仅在八月竹发笋中期采笋,同时政府应加大对大熊猫栖息地周边社区经济发展的引导和扶持。     

Tuning of electronic properties of one-dimensional cyano-bridged Cu-Ni, Cu-Pd, and Cu-Pt bimetallic assemblies by stereochemistry of ligands

Preparations, XPS and electronic spectroscopy, and magnetism of seven new one-dimensional cyano-bridged coordination polymers, chiral [Cu(RR-chxn)₂][Pd(CN)₄] · 2H₂O (1), [Cu(trans-chxn)₂][M(CN)₄] · 2H₂O (2, 4, and 6 for M = Pd, Ni, and Pt), and [Cu(cis-chxn)₂][M(CN)₄] · 2H₂O (3, 5, and 7 for M = Pd, Ni, and Pt) (RR-chxn = cyclohexane-(1R,2R)-diamine, trans-chxn = racemic trans-cyclohexane-(1,2)-diamine, and cis-chxn = racemic cis-cyclohexane-(1,2)-diamine) have been reported in view of tuning of their electronic properties by stereochemistry of chxn ligands and metal-substitution. Comparison of Cu 2p_1/2 and 2p_3/2 peaks of XPS and broad d-d bands around 18 000 cm⁻¹ of electronic spectra are described systematically for 1-7. Variable-temperature magnetic measurement shows that complexes 1-7 indicate weak antiferromagnetic interactions via cyano-bridges. Because of semi-coordination coupled with pseudo Jahn-Teller elongation and electrostatic interaction for 1, the axial Cu-N coordination bond distances of 2.330(7) and 3.092(8) Å are considerably longer than those of equatorial ones in the range from 2.016(6) to 2.030(6) Å. The former bond distances of 1 are intermediate values among the related Ni (2.324(6) and 3.120(8) Å) and Pt (2.34(1) and 3.09(1) Å) complexes.     

Structure and function of S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase

In mammals, S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase (AdoHcyase) is the only known enzyme to catalyze the breakdown of S-adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy) to homocysteine and adenosine. AdoHcy is the product of all adenosylmethionine (AdoMet)-dependent biological transmethylations. These reactions have a wide range of products, and are common in all facets of biometabolism. As a product inhibitor, elevated levels of AdoHcy suppress AdoMet-dependent transmethylations. Thus, AdoHcyase is a regulator of biological transmethylation in general. The three-dimensional structure of AdoHcyase complexed with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADH) and the inhibitor (1′R, 2′S, 3′R)-9-(2′,3′-dihyroxycyclopenten-1-yl)adenine (DHCeA) was solved by a combination of the crystallographic direct methods program, SnB, to determine the selenium atom substructure and by treating the multiwavelength anomalous diffraction data as a special case of multiple isomorphous replacement. The enzyme architecture resembles that observed for NAD-dependent dehydrogenases, with the catalytic domain and the cofactor binding domain each containing a modified Rossmann fold. The two domains form a deep active site cleft containing the cofactor and bound inhibitor molecule. A comparison of the inhibitor complex of the human enzyme and the structure of the rat enzyme, solved without inhibitor, suggests that a 17° rigid body movement of the catalytic domain occurs upon inhibitor/substrate binding.     

Influence of Fluoride on Rat Kidney Antioxidant System: Effects of Methionine and Vitamin E

The aim of the study has been to determine and compare the influence upon the kidney antioxidative system, exercised by administration of vitamin E, and vitamin E in combination with methionine, under conditions of oxidative stress induced by sodium fluoride. The experiment was carried out on Wistar FL rats (adult males) that, for 35 days, were administered water, NaF, NaF with vitamin E, or vitamin E with methionine (doses: 10 mg NaF/kg of body mass/24 h, 3 mg vitamin E per 10 μl per rat for 24 h, 2 mg methionine per rat for 24 h). The influence of administered sodium fluoride and antioxidants upon the antioxidative system in kidney was examined by analyzing the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) and the activity of the most important antioxidative enzymes (SOD, total and both its isoenzymes, GPX, GST, GR, and CAT). The studies carried out confirmed the disadvantageous effect of the administered dose of NaF upon the antixodiative system in rats (increase in the concentration MDA, decrease activity of all antioxidative enzymes). The administration of vitamin E increased the activity of studied enzymes with the exception of glutathione reductase GR; it also reduced the procesess of lipid peroxidation. It has been found that combined doses of vitamin E and methionine were most effective in inhibiting lipid peroxidation processes. The results confirmed the antioxidative properties of methionine.     

Reorientation of Microfibrils and Microtubules at the Outer Epidermal Wall of Maize Coleoptiles During Auxin-Mediated Growth

Auxin-mediated elongation growth of isolated subapical coleoptile segments of maize (Zea mays L.) is controlled by the extensibility of the outer cell wall of the outer epidermis (Kutschera et al., 1987). Here we investigate the hypothesis that auxin controls the extensibility of this wall by changing the orientation of newly deposited microfibrils through a corresponding change in the orientation of cortical microtubules. On the basis of electron micrographs it is shown that cessation of growth after removal of the endogenous source of auxin is correlated with a relative increase of longitudinally orientated microfibrils and microtubules at the inner wall surface. Conversely, reinduction of growth by exogenous auxin is correlated with a relative increase of transversely orientated microfibrils and microtubules at the inner wall surface. These changes can be detected 30–60 min after the removal and addition of auxin, respectively. The functional significance of directional changes of newly desposited wall microfibrils for the control of elongation growth is discussed.     

Land,livestock, and livelihoods: Changing dynamics of gender,caste, and ethnicity in a Nepalese Village

Over the past 10 years, Ghusel VDC, Lalitpur District has moved from primarily subsistence agriculture into the wider cash economy aided by the Small Farmers' Development Program (SFDP), which provides credit to farmers mainly for the purchase of buffalo for milk production, and by the National Dairy Corporation, which supports local dairy cooperatives. Analysis reveals that buffalo-keeping and milk sales are increasing the well-being of many households, while at the same time creating new inequalities in gender roles and responsibilities, greater inequities between Brahmin and Tamang residents in Ghusel, and placing pressures on the ecosystem for increased supplies of fodder and fuelwood. Evidence suggests that there is critical, need for attention to the social, and particularly gender-based, implications of maintaining livestock for milk sales and to the ecological underpinnings of this livelihood system.     

Chiral Separation of G‐type Chemical Warfare Nerve Agents via Analytical Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

Chemical warfare nerve agents (CWNAs) are extremely toxic organophosphorus compounds that contain a chiral phosphorus center. Undirected synthesis of G‐type CWNAs produces stereoisomers of tabun, sarin, soman, and cyclosarin (GA, GB, GD, and GF, respectively). Analytical‐scale methods were developed using a supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) system in tandem with a mass spectrometer for the separation, quantitation, and isolation of individual stereoisomers of GA, GB, GD, and GF. Screening various chiral stationary phases (CSPs) for the capacity to provide full baseline separation of the CWNAs revealed that a Regis WhelkO1 (SS) column was capable of separating the enantiomers of GA, GB, and GF, with elution of the P(+) enantiomer preceding elution of the corresponding P(–) enantiomer; two WhelkO1 (SS) columns had to be connected in series to achieve complete baseline resolution. The four diastereomers of GD were also resolved using two tandem WhelkO1 (SS) columns, with complete baseline separation of the two P(+) epimers. A single WhelkO1 (RR) column with inverse stereochemistry resulted in baseline separation of the GD P(–) epimers. The analytical methods described can be scaled to allow isolation of individual stereoisomers to assist in screening and development of countermeasures to organophosphorus nerve agents. Chirality 26:817–824, 2014. © 2014 The Authors. Chirality published by John Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

邻苯二甲酸二丁酯对翡翠贻贝抗氧化酶及脂质过氧化水平的影响

实验室条件下,研究了不同浓度邻苯二甲酸二丁酯(DBP)长期胁迫(15 d)对翡翠贻贝内脏团和外套膜抗氧化酶(超氧化物歧化酶SOD、过氧化氢酶CAT)及脂质过氧化(LPO)水平(以MDA含量表示)的影响,以及受胁迫翡翠贻贝在清洁海水中恢复阶段上述生化指标的变化特征.结果表明:胁迫阶段,0.5和2.5 mg.L-1DBP下翡翠贻贝内脏团SOD活性表现为先抑制后逐渐恢复,12.5和62.5 mg.L-1下则持续受到显著抑制;不同浓度组CAT活性均明显被抑制.LPO水平明显升高.外套膜中,2.5 mg.L-1下SOD活性受到持续诱导,其他浓度组则先被抑制,后随曝露时间延长逐渐被诱导;各浓度组CAT的变化波动较大,没有明显规律;而LPO水平明显升高.净化恢复阶段,12.5和62.5 mg.L-1DBP胁迫下的内脏团SOD和CAT活性恢复较慢,其LPO水平随时间延长逐渐恢复至对照组水平;外套膜中SOD活性呈持续升高趋势,CAT活性和LPO水平则随时间延长恢复到对照组水平.     

In vitro studies of the rabbit immune system. IV. Differential mitogen responses of isolated T and B cells.

The mitogenic responses of separated rabbit lymphocyte populations functionally analogous to mouse T and B cells have been tested in vitro. Purified T cells were prepared by passage over nylon wool (NW) and purified B cells prepared by treatment with antithymocyte serum and complement (ATS + C). ATS + C kills 70% of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL's) and 50% of the spleen cells while passage over NW yields 40% of the applied PBL's and 5–23% of the applied spleen cells. NW-purified T cells from the spleen or PBL's respond fully to concanavalin A (Con A) but have a reduced response to phytohemaglutinin (PHA) and little or no response to goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin (anti-Ig). PBL's that survive ATS + C (B cells) are stimulated by anti-Ig but not by Con A or PHA. B cells purified from spleen do not respond to Con A or PHA but will respond to anti-Ig under appropriate conditions. A full spleen B-cell response to anti-Ig required removal of Ig produced by the cultures that blocked anti-Ig stimulation. It is concluded that, for rabbit lymphocytes, Con A and PHA are primarily T-cell mitogens and that anti-Ig is primarily a B-cell mitogen. However, the mitogen response of unfractionated PBL or spleen cell populations indicates an overlap in reactivity. This could be due to cells sharing T and B properties, alteration of cell populations by the fractionation procedures used, or recruitment of one population in the presence of a mitogenic response of the other population.     

多马胺能药物对鲇鱼促性腺激素（GtH）分泌活动的影响

以珠江流域鲇鱼（silurus asotus)为实验材料,研究了多巴胺（DA）能药物（DA及其D－2型受体拮抗物 ,DOM）对鲇鱼促性腺激素（GtH)释放的影响,结果表明,在性腺发育的各个时期,单独注射DOM（5ug/g)均不能显著提高鲇鱼血液基础GtH水平,当DOM与LHRH－A联合注射时能显著增强LHRH－A刺激GtH释放的作用;DA只能抑制GnRH诱导的GtH释放,对基础GtH释放无抑制作用,这种生殖内分泌调节方式与鲇形目的革胡子鲇（Clarias gariepinus)和大鳍Hu（Mystus macropterus)相似,而与鲤形目的鲁科（Cyrpindiae)鱼类不同。     

X-ray induction of dominant lethals in late spermatids and mature spermatozoa of Drosophila melanogaster: the role of oxygenation

The role of oxygenation in determining the sensitivity to the induction of dominant lethals was examined in late spermatids and mature spermatozoa of Drosophila melanogaster. 0–2-h-old or 7-day-old Oregon-K males were irradiated with different X-ray exposures in nitrogen, air or in oxygen and the frequencies of dominant lethals induced in these stages were studied. The results obtained confirm and extend Sobels' earlier observations and the interpretation derived therefrom namely, that under normal conditions in air, mature spermatozoa are characterised by a higher degree of oxygenation than late spermatids and this difference is sufficient to explain the differential response of these stages. Similar Oxygen-Enhancement-Ratios(OERs) (of about 2) were obtained for both the cell stages. The present data also revealed that late spermatids are significantly less sensitive than mature spermatozoa to the X-ray-induction of dominant lethals in a nitrogen atmosphere. A plausible mechanism is suggested to explain this observation.