猪肠道冠状病毒与入侵受体氨基肽酶N的相互作用

猪肠道冠状病毒是目前危害养猪产业的重要病原。目前已发现能够感染猪肠道的致病性冠状病毒有4种：猪传染性胃肠炎病毒、猪流行性腹泻病毒、猪丁型冠状病毒和猪肠道甲型冠状病毒。冠状病毒感染宿主的第一步是识别宿主细胞膜受体分子并与之结合,随后启动入侵及膜融合进而使病毒基因组进入宿主细胞内部。因此,冠状病毒受体是决定其宿主范围及组织嗜性的关键因素。确定冠状病毒受体及病毒与受体的结合机制对预防新发病毒及开发冠状病毒治疗性药物具有重要意义。猪传染性胃肠炎病毒利用猪氨基肽酶N（aminopeptidase N,APN）作为感染宿主的功能性受体,并利用唾液酸作为辅助结合因子。猪APN最初也被鉴定为猪流行性腹泻病毒的功能性受体,但近年的研究结果与前面的报道存在较大的差异,产生了较大的争议。最近的研究认为,猪丁型冠状病毒的功能性受体也是APN,并且猪丁型冠状病毒能够利用多个物种的APN作为功能性受体,这与其跨物种传播具有密切关系。最新发现的猪肠道甲型冠状病毒则不使用APN作为其入侵受体。本文综述了前面3种猪肠道病毒感染宿主细胞的受体及结合机制的研究进展,并比较分析了猪APN及唾液酸在不同猪肠道冠状病毒入侵宿主过程中结合方式的异同,为进一步研究新发猪肠道冠状病毒受体提供参考。     

猪流行性腹泻病毒(PEDV)与抗病毒天然免疫

猪流行性腹泻病毒(porcine epidemic diarrhea virus,PEDV)是引起猪流行性腹泻病等肠道疾病的一种动物冠状病毒.PEDV与宿主系统相互作用,特别是其对宿主抗病毒天然免疫调节作用和机制是目前动物冠状病毒研究的基础科学问题之一.基于作者近几年来对人类重要冠状病毒对宿主抗病毒天然免疫系统调节作用的研究,本文对PEDV基因组与编码蛋白主要功能以及PEDV调节宿主抗病毒天然免疫反应及其可能机制的进展和现状进行了分析.与人类冠状病毒相似,PEDV编码的木瓜样蛋白酶(papain like protease,PLP)是一个多功能蛋白酶,除了蛋白酶活性外,还具有去泛素化酶(DUB)活性和宿主干扰素拮抗活性,是PEDV编码的一种新型病毒来源DUB和宿主干扰素拮抗蛋白.这些研究为阐明PEDV对宿主抗病毒天然免疫反应调节作用和其致病机制提供了重要的理论依据,为研制新型PEDV免疫防治措施提供了重要理论基础.     

猪δ冠状病毒感染及其对宿主先天免疫功能的影响

猪δ冠状病毒(porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)是目前新发现的唯一一种感染哺乳动物的δ冠状病毒。PDCoV主要感染猪的小肠,特别是空肠和回肠,造成小肠绒毛上皮细胞萎缩,引起严重的萎缩性肠炎,临床症状主要表现为新生仔猪水样腹泻、呕吐和脱水死亡,给养猪业造成很大的经济损失。2014年以来全球暴发的仔猪腹泻中,PDCoV单一感染检出率占有一定的比例,还与其他猪冠状病毒存在较高比例的共感染现象。随着PDCoV毒株的基因组测序完成和病毒的分离成功,以及病毒与宿主互作研究的推进,对该病毒有了更多的认知。本文根据现有的文献报道,结合本课题组的研究进展,对猪δ冠状病毒的流行、基因组结构的遗传多样性、病毒感染受体和对宿主先天免疫应答调控机制的研究进展进行了综述,以帮助相关人员对PDCoV有全面和深入的了解。     

冠状病毒入胞途径的研究进展

冠状病毒家族成员众多,主要感染哺乳动物和禽鸟类,给人类和动物的健康带来了极大危害。病毒对细胞表面受体的结合和内吞方式,决定病毒的宿主范围、组织嗜性和发病机理;此外,研究病毒的入胞途径不仅有助于我们认识病毒的生活周期,还对病毒性感染的预防和治疗具有重要意义。本文总结归纳了近十年来冠状病毒入胞途径的研究进展:多数冠状病毒可通过网格蛋白依赖型内吞、小窝蛋白依赖型内吞、巨胞饮以及网格蛋白/小窝蛋白非依赖型内吞途径进入细胞,到达早期内体、晚期内体或溶酶体等处发生膜融合,释放病毒基因组进入细胞质。病毒的内吞途径可作为广谱抗病毒药物设计的靶点。     

冠状病毒感染调控细胞凋亡机制研究进展

冠状病毒是常见的感染人类和动物并造成健康危害的主要病原性微生物之一,冠状病毒感染细胞后,细胞产生免疫应答,病毒为了在细胞内转录翻译和装配下一代,应对细胞免疫应答的同时,还参与到许多细胞活动中,当细胞特定受体与病毒蛋白结合后,细胞即启动凋亡程序。冠状病毒的许多蛋白在细胞凋亡程序中起促进或抑制凋亡的不同作用,如病毒S蛋白与细胞膜死亡受体作用诱导细胞启动外在凋亡途径,病毒感染细胞后产生的M、S蛋白引起细胞内质网应激、Ca2+失衡,诱导细胞启动内在凋亡途径,而E蛋白则抑制细胞凋亡的发生。本文综述了冠状病毒对侵染细胞的促凋亡或抑制凋亡作用及其作用机制,通过了解病毒不同蛋白在各种凋亡途径中的不同作用,希望为人工干预调控细胞研究提供思路,为冠状病毒感染防控提供理论支持。     

棘突蛋白在冠状病毒跨宿主感染中的作用

冠状病毒感染有相对严格的宿主和组织特异性,其中部分病毒演化中会发生细胞嗜性改变。冠状病毒的跨宿主感染能力主要取决于病毒表面棘突蛋白的变异及其与受体相互作用的特异性改变。棘突蛋白的变异主要集中在受体结合域（RBD）,其他区域也与病毒感染的宿主细胞特异性有关。另外,较大的RNA基因组、独特的套氏亚基因组转录、复制过程中模板转换引起的高频率基因重组等使冠状病毒不断出现毒力或宿主变异,而共感染和持续性感染则为病毒重组及跨宿主感染提供了机会。     

冠状病毒S蛋白的结构和功能

冠状病毒S蛋白具有受体结合活性和膜融合活性,在组织嗜性、细胞融合和毒力等方面具有重要作用。本综述了S蛋白的一般结构特征及其与细胞受体和膜融合的关系,并介绍了最近发现的SARS病毒S蛋白与其他冠状病毒的异同。     

猪流行性腹泻病毒通过病毒蛋白酶激活Caspase-3诱导细胞凋亡

冠状病毒是一大类能够引起呼吸系统疾病,从而威胁人类健康的病毒．目前,对冠状病毒诱导细胞凋亡及其机制研究甚少.本研究以动物冠状病毒 猪流行性腹泻病毒(PEDV) 为模型探讨冠状病毒诱导细胞凋亡效应及其可能作用机制. 通过流式细胞术检测发现感染PEDV病毒后细胞凋亡率明显升高,且PEDV诱导细胞凋亡呈时间和剂量依赖性(P<0.05或P<0.01);进一步研究发现,冠状病毒木瓜样蛋白酶（PLP）在病毒引起凋亡过程中起重要作用.实验发现,转染PEDV-PLP质粒后,caspase-3活化体表达水平明显升高. 提示冠状病毒PLP蛋白酶通过激活caspase-3在病毒诱导细胞凋亡过程中起着关键作用. 以上结果为研究人类冠状病毒PLP蛋白功能及其通过细胞凋亡调节宿主抗病毒天然免疫机制提供重要基础.     

冠状病毒的基因组结构及特征

冠状病毒(Coronavirus)是具有包膜的正单链RNA病毒,基因组大小介于26 000与32 000 nt之间,编码刺突蛋白(S)、包膜蛋白(E)、膜蛋白(M)和核壳蛋白(N)等四种结构蛋白、复制酶(ORF1a/b)与若干辅助蛋白,部分病毒还具有血细胞凝集素酯酶(HE),这些蛋白除维持病毒结构,还有促进感染与抵抗宿主免疫反应等功能,其中刺突蛋白可与宿主细胞表面的受体结合,使病毒包膜和宿主细胞的膜融合以感染细胞.冠状病毒的感染会影响细胞的许多信号转导途径,引发免疫反应,是一类可感染哺乳动物与鸟类的病毒.     

新型冠状病毒的糖基化、糖受体识别及糖链抑制剂的发现北大核心CSCD

新型冠状病毒疫情(COVID-19)是21世纪截至目前人类面对的最为严重的公共卫生事件。疫苗、中和抗体以及小分子化合药物的出现有效预防和阻止了COVID-19的快速传播,而不断出现的病毒突变体却使这些疫苗及药物的效价降低,这对COVID-19的预防及治疗提出了新的挑战。新型冠状病毒(SARS-CoV-2)通常会先黏附于呼吸道表面的大分子糖链——硫酸乙酰肝素,进而与特异性受体人血管紧张素转化酶2(human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2,hACE2)结合,从而实现对人体的侵入。SARS-CoV-2的刺突(spike,S)蛋白是高度糖基化的,而糖基化对于hACE2与S蛋白的结合也有着重要影响,S蛋白在宿主体内还会被一系列凝集素受体所结合,这意味着糖链在SARS-CoV-2的入侵及感染过程中有着重要的作用。基于SARS-CoV-2的糖基化及糖受体识别机制开发糖链抑制剂可能是预防或治疗新型冠状病毒感染的有效手段,相关研究发现海洋来源的硫酸化多糖、肝素分子及其他的一些糖类具有抗SARS-CoV-2的活性。本文系统阐述了新型冠状病毒的糖基化及其糖链在入侵、感染中的作用,并对抗SARS-CoV-2糖链抑制剂的发现和机制研究现状进行了总结,在此基础上还对糖类抗病毒药物的机遇与挑战进行了展望。     

Mechanisms of zoonotic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus host range expansion in human airway epithelium

In 2003, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) emerged and caused over 8,000 human cases of infection and more than 700 deaths worldwide. Zoonotic SARS-CoV likely evolved to infect humans by a series of transmission events between humans and animals for sale in China. Using synthetic biology, we engineered the spike protein (S) from a civet strain, SZ16, into our epidemic strain infectious clone, creating the chimeric virus icSZ16-S, which was infectious but yielded progeny viruses incapable of propagating in vitro. After introducing a K479N mutation within the S receptor binding domain (RBD) of SZ16, the recombinant virus (icSZ16-S K479N) replicated in Vero cells but was severely debilitated in growth. The in vitro evolution of icSZ16-S K479N on human airway epithelial (HAE) cells produced two viruses (icSZ16-S K479N D8 and D22) with enhanced growth on HAE cells and on delayed brain tumor cells expressing the SARS-CoV receptor, human angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (hACE2). The icSZ16-S K479N D8 and D22 virus RBDs contained mutations in ACE2 contact residues, Y442F and L472F, that remodeled S interactions with hACE2. Further, these viruses were neutralized by a human monoclonal antibody (MAb), S230.15, but the parent icSZ16-S K479N strain was eight times more resistant than the mutants. These data suggest that the human adaptation of zoonotic SARS-CoV strains may select for some variants that are highly susceptible to select MAbs that bind to RBDs. The epidemic, icSZ16-S K479N, and icSZ16-S K479N D22 viruses replicate similarly in the BALB/c mouse lung, highlighting the potential use of these zoonotic spike SARS-CoVs to assess vaccine or serotherapy efficacy in vivo.     

Influenza as a model system for studying the cross-species transfer and evolution of the SARS coronavirus

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) moved into humans from a reservoir species and subsequently caused an epidemic in its new host. We know little about the processes that allowed the cross-species transfer of this previously unknown virus. I discuss what we have learned about the movement of viruses into humans from studies of influenza A, both how it crossed from birds to humans and how it subsequently evolved within the human population. Starting with a brief review of severe acute respiratory syndrome to highlight the kinds of problems we face in learning about this viral disease, I then turn to influenza A, focusing on three topics. First, I present a reanalysis of data used to test the hypothesis that swine served as a "mixing vessel" or intermediate host in the transmission of avian influenza to humans during the 1918 "Spanish flu" pandemic. Second, I review studies of archived viruses from the three recent influenza pandemics. Third, I discuss current limitations in using molecular data to study the evolution of infectious disease. Although influenza A and SARS-CoV differ in many ways, our knowledge of influenza A may provide important clues about what limits or favours cross-species transfers and subsequent epidemics of newly emerging pathogens.     

Specific asparagine-linked glycosylation sites are critical for DC-SIGN- and L-SIGN-mediated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus entry

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a newly emerged coronavirus (CoV) designated SARS-CoV. The virus utilizes angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the primary receptor. Although the idea is less clear and somewhat controversial, SARS-CoV is thought to use C-type lectins DC-SIGN and/or L-SIGN (collectively referred to as DC/L-SIGN) as alternative receptors or as enhancer factors that facilitate ACE2-mediated virus infection. In this study, the function of DC/L-SIGN in SARS-CoV infection was examined in detail. The results of our study clearly demonstrate that both proteins serve as receptors independently of ACE2 and that there is a minimal level of synergy between DC/L-SIGN and ACE2. As expected, glycans on spike (S) glycoprotein are important for DC/L-SIGN-mediated virus infection. Site-directed mutagenesis analyses have identified seven glycosylation sites on the S protein critical for DC/L-SIGN-mediated virus entry. They include asparagine residues at amino acid positions 109, 118, 119, 158, 227, 589, and 699, which are distinct from residues of the ACE2-binding domain (amino acids 318 to 510). Amino acid sequence analyses of S proteins encoded by viruses isolated from animals and humans suggest that glycosylation sites N227 and N699 have facilitated zoonotic transmission.     

Inhibition of the interaction between the SARS-CoV spike protein and its cellular receptor by anti-histo-blood group antibodies

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is a highly pathogenic emergent virus which replicates in cells that can express ABH histo-blood group antigens. The heavily glycosylated SARS-CoV spike (S) protein binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 which serves as a cellular receptor. Epidemiological analysis of a hospital outbreak in Hong Kong revealed that blood group O was associated with a low risk of infection. In this study, we used a cellular model of adhesion to investigate whether natural antibodies of the ABO system could block the S protein and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 interaction. To this aim, a C-terminally EGFP-tagged S protein was expressed in chinese hamster ovary cells cotransfected with an alpha1,2-fucosyltransferase and an A-transferase in order to coexpress the S glycoprotein ectodomain and the A antigen at the cell surface. We observed that the S protein/angiotensin-converting enzyme 2-dependent adhesion of these cells to an angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expressing cell line was specifically inhibited by either a monoclonal or human natural anti-A antibodies, indicating that these antibodies may block the interaction between the virus and its receptor, thereby providing protection. In order to more fully appreciate the potential effect of the ABO polymorphism on the epidemiology of SARS, we built a mathematical model of the virus transmission dynamics that takes into account the protective effect of ABO natural antibodies. The model indicated that the ABO polymorphism could contribute to substantially reduce the virus transmission, affecting both the number of infected individuals and the kinetics of the epidemic.     

Comparative review of respiratory diseases caused by coronaviruses and influenza A viruses during epidemic season

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to sweep the world, causing infection of millions and death of hundreds of thousands. The respiratory disease that it caused, COVID-19 (stands for coronavirus disease in 2019), has similar clinical symptoms with other two CoV diseases, severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome (SARS and MERS), of which causative viruses are SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, respectively. These three CoVs resulting diseases also share many clinical symptoms with other respiratory diseases caused by influenza A viruses (IAVs). Since both CoVs and IAVs are general pathogens responsible for seasonal cold, in the next few months, during the changing of seasons, clinicians and public heath may have to distinguish COVID-19 pneumonia from other kinds of viral pneumonia. This is a discussion and comparison of the virus structures, transmission characteristics, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, pathological changes, treatment and prevention of the two kinds of viruses, CoVs and IAVs. It hopes to provide information for practitioners in the medical field during the epidemic season.     

Difference in receptor usage between severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus and SARS-like coronavirus of bat origin

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by the SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), which uses angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as its receptor for cell entry. A group of SARS-like CoVs (SL-CoVs) has been identified in horseshoe bats. SL-CoVs and SARS-CoVs share identical genome organizations and high sequence identities, with the main exception of the N terminus of the spike protein (S), known to be responsible for receptor binding in CoVs. In this study, we investigated the receptor usage of the SL-CoV S by combining a human immunodeficiency virus-based pseudovirus system with cell lines expressing the ACE2 molecules of human, civet, or horseshoe bat. In addition to full-length S of SL-CoV and SARS-CoV, a series of S chimeras was constructed by inserting different sequences of the SARS-CoV S into the SL-CoV S backbone. Several important observations were made from this study. First, the SL-CoV S was unable to use any of the three ACE2 molecules as its receptor. Second, the SARS-CoV S failed to enter cells expressing the bat ACE2. Third, the chimeric S covering the previously defined receptor-binding domain gained its ability to enter cells via human ACE2, albeit with different efficiencies for different constructs. Fourth, a minimal insert region (amino acids 310 to 518) was found to be sufficient to convert the SL-CoV S from non-ACE2 binding to human ACE2 binding, indicating that the SL-CoV S is largely compatible with SARS-CoV S protein both in structure and in function. The significance of these findings in relation to virus origin, virus recombination, and host switching is discussed.     

Epidemiological analysis of acute respiratory disease (ARD) and characteristics of the influenza epidemic in Bohemia during the season 1986/1987

The authors analyze the findings of epidemiological and virological surveillance of ARD in Bohemia during the season 1986/1987. In all, 57.5% of the Czech population was affected by acute respiratory disease (ARD). There were 5,950,832 cases reported, 124,444 complications (2.1% of the overall morbidity rate) and 5,374 deaths due to influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia and chronic pulmonary affection. The influenza epidemic commenced during the 48-th calendary week (CW) and lasted 5 weeks till the 52-nd CW. The epidemic was due to an influenza virus strain of the subtype A(H1N1) antigenically related to the drift variant A (Singapore) 6/86. Within an extremely short period of the epidemic, 1,094,865 influenza cases were reported and 22,313 cases of complications. 10.7% of the CSR population were affected during the epidemic in whose etiology noninfluenza respiratory viruses were significantly implicated, especially adenoviruses (41.7%) and the RS virus (26.9%). There was no excessive mortality in the course of the epidemic. The authors discuss the atypical nature of this particular influenza epidemic and the etiological role of respiratory viruses.     

Structural Bases of Coronavirus Attachment to Host Aminopeptidase N and Its Inhibition by Neutralizing Antibodies

The coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped viruses of animals and humans associated mostly with enteric and respiratory diseases, such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome and 10–20% of all common colds. A subset of CoVs uses the cell surface aminopeptidase N (APN), a membrane-bound metalloprotease, as a cell entry receptor. In these viruses, the envelope spike glycoprotein (S) mediates the attachment of the virus particles to APN and subsequent cell entry, which can be blocked by neutralizing antibodies. Here we describe the crystal structures of the receptor-binding domains (RBDs) of two closely related CoV strains, transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and porcine respiratory CoV (PRCV), in complex with their receptor, porcine APN (pAPN), or with a neutralizing antibody. The data provide detailed information on the architecture of the dimeric pAPN ectodomain and its interaction with the CoV S. We show that a protruding receptor-binding edge in the S determines virus-binding specificity for recessed glycan-containing surfaces in the membrane-distal region of the pAPN ectodomain. Comparison of the RBDs of TGEV and PRCV to those of other related CoVs, suggests that the conformation of the S receptor-binding region determines cell entry receptor specificity. Moreover, the receptor-binding edge is a major antigenic determinant in the TGEV envelope S that is targeted by neutralizing antibodies. Our results provide a compelling view on CoV cell entry and immune neutralization, and may aid the design of antivirals or CoV vaccines. APN is also considered a target for cancer therapy and its structure, reported here, could facilitate the development of anti-cancer drugs.     

Influenza A/H1N1 2009 Pandemic and Respiratory Virus Infections,Beijing, 2009–2010

To determine the role of the pandemic influenza A/H1N1 2009 (A/H1N1 2009pdm) in acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs) and its impact on the epidemic of seasonal influenza viruses and other common respiratory viruses, nasal and throat swabs taken from 7,776 patients with suspected viral ARTIs from 2006 through 2010 in Beijing, China were screened by real-time PCR for influenza virus typing and subtyping and by multiplex or single PCR tests for other common respiratory viruses. We observed a distinctive dual peak pattern of influenza epidemic during the A/H1N1 2009pdm in Beijing, China, which was formed by the A/H1N1 2009pdm, and a subsequent influenza B epidemic in year 2009/2010. Our analysis also shows a small peak formed by a seasonal H3N2 epidemic prior to the A/H1N1 2009pdm peak. Parallel detection of multiple respiratory viruses shows that the epidemic of common respiratory viruses, except human rhinovirus, was delayed during the pandemic of the A/H1N1 2009pdm. The H1N1 2009pdm mainly caused upper respiratory tract infections in the sampled patients; patients infected with H1N1 2009pdm had a higher percentage of cough than those infected with seasonal influenza or other respiratory viruses. Our findings indicate that A/H1N1 2009pdm and other respiratory viruses except human rhinovirus could interfere with each other during their transmission between human beings. Understanding the mechanisms and effects of such interference is needed for effective control of future influenza epidemics.