Plant-microbe-soil interactions in the rhizosphere: an evolutionary perspective

Soils are the product of the activities of plants, which supply organic matter and play a pivotal role in weathering rocks and minerals. Many plant species have a distinct ecological amplitude that shows restriction to specific soil types. In the numerous interactions between plants and soil, microorganisms also play a key role. Here we review the existing literature on interactions between plants, microorganisms and soils, and include considerations of evolutionary time scales, where possible. Some of these interactions involve intricate systems of communication, which in the case of symbioses such as the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis are several hundreds of millions years old; others involve the release of exudates from roots, and other products of rhizodeposition that are used as substrates for soil microorganisms. The possible reasons for the survival value of this loss of carbon over tens or hundreds of millions of years of evolution of higher plants are discussed, taking a cost-benefit approach. Co-evolution of plants and rhizosphere microorganisms is discussed, in the light of known ecological interactions between various partners in terrestrial ecosystems. Finally, the role of higher plants, especially deep-rooted plants and associated microorganisms in the weathering of rocks and minerals, ultimately contributing to pedogenesis, is addressed. We show that rhizosphere processes in the long run are central to biogeochemical cycles, soil formation and Earth history. Major anticipated discoveries will enhance our basic understanding and allow applications of new knowledge to deal with nutrient deficiencies, pests and diseases, and the challenges of increasing global food production and agroecosystem productivity in an environmentally responsible manner.     

Exopolysaccharide-Producing Rhizospheric Bacteria Enhance Yield via Promoting Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Growth at Early Stages

Microbiology - Plant-soil interactions directing plant growth are governed by chemical communications among the microorganisms, and between the plants and microbes. A study was conducted to...     

Organic Farming Favours Insect-Pollinated over Non-Insect Pollinated Forbs in Meadows and Wheat Fields

The aim of this study was to determine the relative effects of landscape-scale management intensity, local management intensity and edge effect on diversity patterns of insect-pollinated vs. non-insect pollinated forbs in meadows and wheat fields. Nine landscapes were selected differing in percent intensively used agricultural area (IAA), each with a pair of organic and conventional winter wheat fields and a pair of organic and conventional meadows. Within fields, forbs were surveyed at the edge and in the interior. Both diversity and cover of forbs were positively affected by organic management in meadows and wheat fields. This effect, however, differed significantly between pollination types for species richness in both agroecosystem types (i.e. wheat fields and meadows) and for cover in meadows. Thus, we show for the first time in a comprehensive analysis that insect-pollinated plants benefit more from organic management than non-insect pollinated plants regardless of agroecosystem type and landscape complexity. These benefits were more pronounced in meadows than wheat fields. Finally, the community composition of insect-pollinated and non-insect-pollinated forbs differed considerably between management types. In summary, our findings in both agroecosystem types indicate that organic management generally supports a higher species richness and cover of insect-pollinated plants, which is likely to be favourable for the density and diversity of bees and other pollinators.     

叶际微生物及其与外界互作的研究进展

叶际微生物及其生存环境共同形成了一个复杂的生态系统。建立在纯种分离和纯培养技术基础之上的传统研究方法只能了解其中部分叶际微生物,但对物种组成、种群结构和生态学作用等方面的认识都比较片面。近年来随着分子生物学和生物信息学的进步,人们对叶际微生物总群落的分析逐渐揭示了叶际微生物组成的多样性及其特点,以及与外界互相作用的复杂性。研究表明,植物种类、地理位置和季节差异等都不同程度地影响着叶际微生物群落的构成。本文综述了近年来国内外叶际微生物群落结构组成及其与外界互作方面的研究进展,有利于加深对叶际微生物的了解,也有助于深入理解叶际微生物与植物生长和植物病虫害防治的关联关系。     

Competition for nitrogen between plants and soil microorganisms

Experiments suggest that plants and soil microorganisms are both limited by inorganic nitrogen, even on relatively fertile sites. Consequently, plants and soil microorganisms may compete for nitrogen. While past research has focused on competition for inorganic nitrogen, recent studies have found that plants/mycorrhizae in a wide range of ecosystems can use organic nitrogen. A new view of competitive interactions between plants and soil microorganisms is necessary in ecosystem where plant uptake of organic nitrogen is observed.     

Bat-Fruit Interactions Are More Specialized in Shaded-Coffee Plantations than in Tropical Mountain Cloud Forest Fragments

Forest disturbance causes specialization of plant-frugivore networks and jeopardizes mutualistic interactions through reduction of ecological redundancy. To evaluate how simplification of a forest into an agroecosystem affects plant-disperser mutualistic interactions, we compared bat-fruit interaction indexes of specialization in tropical montane cloud forest fragments (TMCF) and shaded-coffee plantations (SCP). Bat-fruit interactions were surveyed by collection of bat fecal samples. Bat-fruit interactions were more specialized in SCP (mean H₂ '' = 0.55) compared to TMCF fragments (mean H₂ '' = 0.27), and were negatively correlated to bat abundance in SCP (R = -0.35). The number of shared plant species was higher in the TMCF fragments (mean = 1) compared to the SCP (mean = 0.51) and this was positively correlated to the abundance of frugivorous bats (R= 0.79). The higher specialization in SCP could be explained by lower bat abundance and lower diet overlap among bats. Coffee farmers and conservation policy makers must increase the proportion of land assigned to TMCF within agroecosystem landscapes in order to conserve frugivorous bats and their invaluable seed dispersal service.     

释放后的转抗病虫基因作物对土壤生物群落的影响

土壤生物,尤其是土壤微生物多样性与活性的保持是农业生态系统健康稳定的基础,农业活动尤其是农作物植被类型的改变对土壤生物的群落结构和活性具有显著的影响。释放后的转基因作物作为生态系统的一种新的生物组分,被引入农田生态系统之间后所引发的农田生物群落（包括土壤微生物群落）的变化及其对农业生态系统的健康与稳定产生的影响,已成为研究热点,本文对转抗虫Bt基因作物、转T4-溶菌酶基因作物,转蛋白酶抑制剂I基因作物的基因产物、作物残体在土壤中的行为（如降解产物的存留形态与生物活性）及其对根际或残体周围土壤中各类生物,尤其是微生物群落结构与功能的影响进行了简要综合评述,指出基因表达产物的后效肯定是存在的且长远的,由其引发的土壤生物群落结构的变化是复杂的,因而有必要对不同类型的转基因作物释放后的生态效应做长期的跟踪研究,建议未来的研究工作应集中在以下3个方面：（1）不同的转基因表达产物在环境中的迁移、结构变化、消长动态及其对生物保持毒杀性的时间;（2）不同类型转基因的植物对土壤生物群落结构的影响趋势;（3）在实验条件下,研究分离纯化的各种转基因表达产物对土壤各生物功能类群的影响。     

Causes and consequences of plant-associated biofilms

The rhizosphere is the critical interface between plant roots and soil where beneficial and harmful interactions between plants and microorganisms occur. Although microorganisms have historically been studied as planktonic (or free-swimming) cells, most are found attached to surfaces, in multicellular assemblies known as biofilms. When found in association with plants, certain bacteria such as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria not only induce plant growth but also protect plants from soil-borne pathogens in a process known as biocontrol. Contrastingly, other rhizobacteria in a biofilm matrix may cause pathogenesis in plants. Although research suggests that biofilm formation on plants is associated with biological control and pathogenic response, little is known about how plants regulate this association. Here, we assess the biological importance of biofilm association on plants.     

植物与土壤微生物在调控生态系统养分循环中的作用

陆地生态系统的地上、地下是相互联系的。植物与土壤微生物作为陆地生态系统中的重要组成部分, 它们之间的相互作用是生态系统地上、地下结合的重要纽带。该文首先介绍了植物在养分循环中对营养元素的吸收、积累和归还等作用, 阐述了土壤微生物对养分有效性及土壤质量具有重要的作用。其次, 重点综述了植物与土壤微生物之间相互依存、相互竞争的关系。植物通过其凋落物与分泌物为土壤微生物提供营养, 土壤微生物作为分解者提供植物可吸收的营养元素, 比如共生体菌根真菌即可使植物根与土壤真菌达到互惠。然而, 植物的养分吸收与微生物的养分固持同时存在, 因而两者之间存在对养分的竞争。通过植物多样性对土壤微生物多样性的影响分析, 以及土壤微生物直接或间接作用于植物多样性和生产力的分析, 探讨了植物物种多样性与土壤微生物多样性之间的内在联系。针对当前植物与土壤微生物对养分循环的调控机制的争论, 提出植物凋落物是调节植物与土壤微生物养分循环的良好媒介, 植物与土壤微生物的共同作用对维持整个生态系统的稳定性具有重要意义。也指出了目前在陆地生态系统地上、地下研究中存在的不足和亟待解决的问题。     

Interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and soil bacteria

The soil environment is interesting and complicated. There are so many interactions taking place in the soil, which determine the properties of soil as a medium for the growth and activities of plants and soil microorganisms. The soil fungi, arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), are in mutual and beneficial symbiosis with most of the terrestrial plants. AM fungi are continuously interactive with a wide range of soil microorganisms including nonbacterial soil microorganisms, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, mycorrhiza helper bacteria and deleterious bacteria. Their interactions can have important implications in agriculture. There are some interesting interactions between the AM fungi and soil bacteria including the binding of soil bacteria to the fungal spore, the injection of molecules by bacteria into the fungal spore, the production of volatiles by bacteria and the degradation of fungal cellular wall. Such mechanisms can affect the expression of genes in AM fungi and hence their performance and ecosystem productivity. Hence, consideration of such interactive behavior is of significance. In this review, some of the most important findings regarding the interactions between AM fungi and soil bacteria with some new insights for future research are presented.     

Herbivore induced plant volatiles: Their role in plant defense for pest management

Plants respond to herbivory through different defensive mechanisms. The induction of volatile emission is one of the important and immediate response of plants to herbivory. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) are involved in plant communication with natural enemies of the insect herbivores, neighboring plants, and different parts of the damaged plant. Release of a wide variety of HIPVs in response to herbivore damage and their role in plant-plant, plant-carnivore and intraplant communications represents a new facet of the complex interactions among different trophic levels. HIPVs are released from leaves, flowers, and fruits into the atmosphere or into the soil from roots in response to herbivore attack. Moreover, HIPVs act as feeding and/or oviposition deterrents to insect pests. HIPVs also mediate the interactions between the plants and the microorganisms. This review presents an overview of HIPVs emitted by plants, their role in plant defense against herbivores and their implications for pest management.     

Driving factors of the communities of phytophagous and predatory mites in a physic nut plantation and spontaneous plants associated

Seasonal changes in climate and plant diversity are known to affect the population dynamics of both pests and natural enemies within agroecosystems. In Brazil, spontaneous plants are usually tolerated in small-scale physic nut plantations over the year, which in turn may mediate interactions between pests and natural enemies within this agroecosystem. Here, we aimed to access the influence of seasonal variation of abiotic (temperature, relative humidity and rainfall) and biotic (diversity of spontaneous plants, overall richness and density of mites) factors on the communities of phytophagous and predatory mites found in a physic nut plantation and its associated spontaneous plants. Mite sampling was monthly conducted in dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous leaves of spontaneous plants as well as in physic nut shrubs over an entire year. In the dry season there was a higher abundance of phytophagous mites (Tenuipalpidae, Tarsonemidae and Tetranychidae) on spontaneous plants than on physic nut shrubs, while predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) showed the opposite pattern. The overall density of mites on spontaneous plants increased with relative humidity and diversity of spontaneous plants. Rainfall was the variable that most influenced the density of mites inhabiting physic nut shrubs. Agroecosystems comprising spontaneous plants associated with crops harbour a rich mite community including species of different trophic levels which potentially benefit natural pest control due to increased diversity and abundance of natural enemies.     

草地农业生态学研究进展与趋势

阐述了草地农业生态学的内涵,发展过程,前沿领域和发展趋势,草地农业生态系统的界面理论,结构与功能,系统耦合与系统相悖以及系统健康评价是该学科的4个前沿领域,草地农业生态系统存在3个基本界面,即草丛-地境,草地-动物以及草畜生产-经营管理界面,研究发生于各个界面的一系列生态学过程,是揭示系统行为特征的关键,草地农业生态系统有4个生产层,即前植物,植物,动物和外生物生产层,系统耦合与系统相悖是生产层之间互作的2个重要概念,不同生产层之间的系统耦合,可产生系统进化,多方面释放系统潜势,生态系统健康水平是其结构和功能的反映,健康评价是对其有序度和服务价值的度量。     

Assembly rules for functional groups of North American shrews: effects of geographic range and habitat partitioning

Trophic cascades exist in numerous terrestrial systems, including many systems with ants as the top predator. Many studies show how behavioral modifications of herbivores are especially important in mediating species interactions and trophic cascades. Although most studies of trophic cascades focus on predator-herbivore-plant links, the trophic cascades concept could be applied to almost any level of trophic interactions. Especially considering the importance of parasites we consider here the interactions between the parasitic phorid fly, Pseudacteon sp. (Diptera: Phoridae), its ant host, Azteca instabilis (F. Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and the herbivore, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the coffee agroecosystem. We investigated the effects of phorid flies on ant behavior by monitoring ant recruitment to tuna baits over a 30-min period in the presence or absence of phorid flies. To study the indirect effects of phorids on larvae, we placed baits on coffee plants to elevate ant foraging levels to levels near to ant nests, placed larvae near baits, and recorded the effects of ants on larvae either in the presence or absence of phorid flies. We found that phorid fly presence significantly reduced ant ability to recruit to baits through behavioral modifications and also significantly lessened ant ability to attack, carry away, or force herbivores off plants. We conclude there is a behaviorally-modified species-level trophic cascade in the coffee agroecosystem, with potentially important effects in ant and herbivore communities as well as for coffee production.     

Use of plants by Myzus persicae in agroecosystems: Potential applications in conservation biological control

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) is a highly polyphagous aphid species that attacks several economically important crop plants. Here, trophic webs involving M. persicae, its host plants and its parasitoids were described and quantified in wheat, oat and alfalfa agroecosystems from central Argentina, with special emphasis on the sub-habitats where interactions occur: crops and adjacent field margins. Three fields cultivated with each crop species and their margins were sampled during three years; aphid abundance and mummification percentage were compared among crop plants and the diverse natural vegetation in the borders. Interactions were described using a quantitative food web approach, and abundance and mummification percentage e data were analysed using a generalized linear model. Four plant species present in the borders (Capsella bursa-pastori, Rapistrum sp., Melilotus sp. and Trifolium repens) hosted M. persicae and its parasitoids. The alfalfa agroecosystem produced a significantly higher number of aphids than oat and wheat; however, in all cases, crops and borders sustained similar aphid abundance. A total of six Aphidiinae species attacked M. persicae, with no significant differences in the richness of parasitoid species between the borders and the crops, but with significant differences in parasitoid abundance, being higher in the crops. Mummification percentage were higher in crops than in the borders, with Lysiphlebus testaceipes, Aphidius colemani and A. ervi being the most abundant species. Almost 70% of M. persicae individuals were collected from fields borders, which highlights the importance of including these sites in studies of trophic interactions in crop fields.     

Involvement of auxin pathways in modulating root architecture during beneficial plant–microorganism interactions

A wide variety of microorganisms known to produce auxin and auxin precursors form beneficial relationships with plants and alter host root development. Moreover, other signals produced by microorganisms affect auxin pathways in host plants. However, the precise role of auxin and auxin‐signalling pathways in modulating plant–microbe interactions is unknown. Dissecting out the auxin synthesis, transport and signalling pathways resulting in the characteristic molecular, physiological and developmental response in plants will further illuminate upon how these intriguing inter‐species interactions of environmental, ecological and economic significance occur. The present review seeks to survey and summarize the scattered evidence in support of known host root modifications brought about by beneficial microorganisms and implicate the role of auxin synthesis, transport and signal transduction in modulating beneficial effects in plants. Finally, through a synthesis of the current body of work, we present outstanding challenges and potential future research directions on studies related to auxin signalling in plant–microbe interactions.     

昆虫共生微生物及其功能研究进展

昆虫体内共生微生物能够占到昆虫生物量的1%~10%,主要包括细菌、真菌、古菌和病毒。昆虫与共生微生物共进化形成共生体,共生微生物在昆虫生物学性状、多样性形成、生态适应性与抗逆性等多方面发挥着重要的作用。昆虫中的农作物害虫严重影响农业生产。本文对2000年以来农业害虫共生微生物的多样性、研究方法和功能机制、共生微生物之间的互作以及在害虫防控中的应用等方面的研究进展进行综述和展望。随着分子微生态学、宏基因组测序等先进研究方法的不断开发应用,对农业昆虫害虫共生微生物研究的广度和深度都有了突破。发现共生微生物主要通过以下方式影响宿主昆虫：(1)合成营养物质或产生消化酶促进宿主生长发育、拓展宿主生态位;(2)产生保护性代谢物直接保护宿主抵御胁迫,或通过调控寄主植物的防御反应间接地保护宿主;(3)产生活性物质调控宿主的生殖、交配、聚集和运动等行为。昆虫共生微生物的种类和数量在一定时空范围内维持动态变化并对宿主表型产生重要影响,是宿主、环境、共生微生物互作因素之间收益权衡的结果。因此建议进一步开展以下研究：影响共生体形成和维持的分子机制;在更多时空维度上研究共生微生物、宿主、寄主、天敌和环境之间的复杂相互作用;通过定向调控共生体设计绿色高效的害虫防治策略。     

Mycorrhizosphere interactions to improve plant fitness and soil quality

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are key components of soil microbiota and obviously interact with other microorganisms in the rhizosphere, i.e. the zone of influence of plant roots on microbial populations and other soil constituents. Mycorrhiza formation changes several aspects of plant physiology and some nutritional and physical properties of the rhizospheric soil. These effects modify the colonization patterns of the root or mycorrhizas (mycorrhizosphere) by soil microorganisms. The rhizosphere of mycorrhizal plants, in practice a mycorrhizosphere, harbors a great array of microbial activities responsible for several key ecosystem processes. This paper summarizes the main conceptual principles and accepted statements on the microbial interactions between mycorrhizal fungi and other members of rhizosphere microbiota and discusses current developments and future trends concerning the following topics: (i) effect of soil microorganisms on mycorrhiza formation; (ii) mycorrhizosphere establishment; (iii) interactions involved in nutrient cycling and plant growth; (iv) interactions involved in the biological control of plant pathogens; and (v) interactions to improve soil quality. The main conclusion is that microbial interactions in the rhizosphere of mycorrhizal plants improve plant fitness and soil quality, critical issues for a sustainable agricultural development and ecosystem functioning. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

免耕法对棉田生态系统能流功能的影响

比较了常规与免耕法对棉田生态系统中土壤微生物、害虫、天敌、棉株及其整个棉田生态系统能流功能的影响 .结果表明 ,免耕棉田土壤微生物量与年呼吸耗氧量均明显高于常规棉田 ,分别为常规棉田的 1 .32倍和 1 .63倍 ;免耕棉田的苗蚜与秋蚜、2代与 4代棉铃虫种群生产力下降 ,而伏蚜与 3代棉铃虫种群生产力增加 ;免耕棉田内天敌种群生产力及其捕食利用效率下降 ;免耕可提高棉田系统的光能利用率和总生产力 ,减少辅助能的投入 ,具有低耗、高效的特点 .