Redox homeostasis and respiratory metabolism in camels (Camelus dromedaries): comparisons with domestic goats and laboratory rats and mice

We have previously reported the occurrence of multiple forms of drug-metabolizing enzymes in camel tissues. Here, we investigate glutathione (GSH)-dependent redox homeostasis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial respiratory functions in camel tissues and compare them with imported domestic goats and laboratory rats and mice. Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP 2E1) and GSH-metabolizing enzymes were differentially expressed in the liver and kidney of these animals. Camel liver has significantly lower GSH pool than that in goats, rats and mice. Mitochondria isolated from the tissues of these animals showed a comparable ability to metabolize specific substrates for respiratory enzyme complexes I, II/III and IV. These complexes were metabolically more active in the kidney than in the liver of all the species. Furthermore, the activity of complex IV in camel tissues was significantly lower than in other species. On the other hand, complex II/III activity in camel kidney was higher compared to the other species. In addition, as expected, we observed that inhibitors of these enzyme complexes augment the production of mitochondrial ROS in camel and goat tissues. These results help to better understand the metabolic ability and adaptation in desert camels in comparison with domestic goats and laboratory rats and mice since they are exposed to different environmental and dietary conditions. Our study may also have implications in the pharmacology and toxicology of drugs and pollutants in these species.     

缺血预处理对肢体缺血／再灌注肾损伤保护作用的机制初探

目的：探讨缺血预处理对肢体缺血／再灌注时肾损伤的保护作用。方法：复制家兔肢体缺血／再灌注（I／R）损伤模型,观察肢体缺血4h再灌注4h后以及应用缺血预处理干预对肾损伤的影响。分别从右颈外静脉、肾动脉和肾静脉取血,代表外周血以及入、出肾血,观察外周血超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、丙二醛（MDA）及尿素氮（BUN）;同时测定入肾血和出肾血NO、SOD、MDA和肾组织SOD、MDA、诱导型一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）以及缺血预处理对上述指标的影响。结果：与对照组比较,缺血再灌组松夹后4h外周血、入、出肾血及肾组织SOD活性明显降低,MDA含量增高（P〈0．01）;外周血BUN以及入、出肾血NO和肾组织iNOS含量升高（P〈0．01）;在缺血前给予缺血预处理组．SOD活性升高,而MDA、BUN、NO、iNOS含量降低（P〈0．01）。相关分析显示MDA与SOD间存在明显负相关（P〈0．01）．而MDA与NO、BUN间呈显著正相关（P〈0．01）。结论：肢体缺血／再灌注时伴有肾脏氧自由基代谢紊乱,缺血预处理可以增强肾组织的抗氧化能力,对肢体缺血再灌注肾损伤具有保护作用。     

Diversity and distribution of CYP gene family in Bactrian camel

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes belong to a superfamily of monooxygenases which are phase I enzymes responsible for the first pass metabolism of about 90% of drugs in animals. However, these enzymes are often polymorphic and metabolism of the same drug in different species or different individuals is influenced by genetic and non-genetic factors. Bactrian camels are capable of survival in harsh living environments, being able to consume diets that are often toxic to other mammals and can tolerate extreme water and food deprivation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the Bactrian camel’s special metabolic pathways and unique detoxification capabilities are attributable to particularities of the CYP gene family. The Bactrian camel’s whole genome sequencing data were systemically analyzed and annotated, and then, CYP gene family was searched from the whole protein database and compared with CYP gene families of cattle, horse, chicken, and human. The total of 63 CYP gene copies were found in Bactrian camel’s whole genome and were classified into 17 families and 38 subfamilies. Among them, 9 multi-gene families were found, and CYP2, CYP3, and CPY4 have 27, 6, and 7 subfamilies, accounting for 43, 10, and 11% in camel CYP gene, respectively. In comparison with cattle, chicken, horse, and human, the distribution of CYP gene subfamilies in camel is different, with more CYP2J and CYP3A copies in the Bactrian camel, which may contribute to the Bactrian camel’s specific biological characteristics and metabolic pathways. Comparing to the cow, horse, chicken, and human CYP genes, the distribution of CYP gene subfamilies is distinct in the Bactrian camel. The higher copy number of CYP2J gene and CYP3A gene in Bactrian camel may be the important factors contributing to the distinct biological characteristics and metabolic pathways of Bactrian camels for adaptation to the harsh environments.     

Measurement and localization of angiotensin-like immunoreactivity in juxtaglomerular cells of the rat

The existence and distribution of angiotensin I (A I) and angiotensin II (A II) in rat kidney were examined in immunocytochemical studies using the peroxidase-antiperoxidase technique and in biochemical studies using rat kidney homogenates extracted with acid-ethanol and purified by Sephadex G-25 gel chromatography. Immunopositive A II-like staining was observed in the juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent arteriole, but no histochemical evidence for A I was found. On the other hand, renal homogenates were found to contain both A I and A II immunoreactivities which coeluted on gel chromatography with synthetic A I and A II. These results indicate that A I as well as A II immunoreactivities are present in the kidney and that A II immunoreactivity can be localized to the juxtaglomerular cells. The origin of the immunoreactive A II in the juxtaglomerular cells remains to be determined.     

CT增强对比剂的不同浓度和流速对肾脏增强图像质量的影响

目的：探讨128排螺旋CT扫描增强对比剂的不同浓度和流速对肾脏增强图像质量的影响。方法：回顾性分析2011年7月~2013年5月间于我院影像科行腹部增强CT扫描检查的患者136例,对采用不同浓度（300 mgI/mL、350 mgI/mL）和不同流速（3 mL/s、5 mL/s）的图像质量,选取选取左肾动脉开口处腹主动脉（D）、左/右肾脏动脉（E）、左/右肾脏静脉（F）、左/右肾皮质（G）、左/右肾实质（H）作为感兴区进行分析,评估碘海醇浓度及流速增强剂对图像质量的影响。结果：不同浓度相同流速增强剂对图像质量的影响比较：左肾动脉开口处腹主动脉、肾脏动脉、肾脏静脉血管显影质量比较差异无统计学意义,P〉0.05;肾皮质、肾实质差异有统计学意义,P〈0.05;相同浓度不同流速增强剂对图像质量的影响差异各部位均有统计学意义,均P〈0.05。结论：较高碘海醇使用浓度和较快的注射流速对肾脏血流显影有帮助,因此,在安全剂量范围内,适当增加碘海醇使用浓度及增加对比剂的注射速度会提高肾脏增强扫描的图像质量。     

Acute renal venous obstruction is more detrimental to the kidney than arterial occlusion: implication for murine models of acute kidney injury

In this study, we compared the traditional murine model with renal pedicle clamp with models that clamped the renal artery or vein alone as well as to a whole body ischemia-reperfusion injury (WBIRI) model. Male C57BL/6J mice underwent either clamping of the renal artery, vein, or both (whole pedicle) for 30 or 45 min followed by reperfusion, or 10 min of cardiac arrest followed by resuscitation up to 24 h. After 30 min of ischemia, the mice with renal vein clamping showed the mostly increased serum creatinine and the most severe renal tubule injury. After 45 min of ischemia, all mice with renal vasculature clamping had a comparable increase in serum creatinine but the renal tubule injury was most severe in renal artery-clamped mice. Renal arterial blood flow was most decreased in mice with a renal vein clamp compared with a renal artery or pedicle clamp. A 30-or 45-min renal ischemia time led to a significant increase in the protein level of interleukin-6, keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC), and granular colony-stimulating factor in the ischemic kidney, but the KC was the highest in the renal pedicle-clamped kidney and the lowest in the renal vein-clamped kidney. Of note, 10 min of WBIRI led to kidney dysfunction and structural injury, although less than longer time clamping of isolated renal vasculature. Our data demonstrate important differences in ischemic AKI models. Understanding these differences is important in designing future experimental studies in mice as well as clinical trials in humans.     

Renal enzymes during experimental diabetes mellitus in the rat. Role of insulin, carbohydrate metabolism, and ketoacidosis

The activities of various ammoniagenic, gluconeogenic, and glycolytic enzymes were measured in the renal cortex and also in the liver of rats made diabetic with streptozotocin. Five groups of animals were studied: normal, normoglycemic diabetic (insulin therapy), hyperglycemic, ketoacidotic, and ammonium chloride treated rats. Glutaminase I, glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamine synthetase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, fructose-1,6-diphosphatase, malate dehydrogenase, malic enzyme, and lactate dehydrogenase were measured. Renal glutaminase I activity rose during ketoacidosis and ammonium chloride acidosis. Glutamate dehydrogenase in the kidney rose only in ammonium chloride treated animals. Glutamine synthetase showed no particular variation. PEPCK rose in diabetic hyperglycemic animals and more so during ketoacidosis and ammonium chloride acidosis. It also rose in the liver of the diabetic animals. Hexokinase activity in the kidney rose in diabetic insulin-treated normoglycemic rats and also during ketoacidosis. The same pattern was observed in the liver of these diabetic rats. Renal and hepatic phosphofructokinase activities were elevated in all groups of experimental animals. Fructose-1,6-diphosphatase and malate dehydrogenase did not vary significantly in the kidney and the liver. Malic enzyme was lower in the kidney and liver of the hyperglycemic diabetic animals and also in the liver of the ketoacidotic rats. Lactate dehydrogenase fell slightly in the liver of diabetic hyperglycemic and NH4Cl acidotic animals. The present study indicates that glutaminase I is associated with the first step of increased renal ammoniagenesis during ketoacidosis. PEPCK activity is influenced both by hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis, acidosis playing an additional role. Insulin appears to prevent renal gluconeogenesis and to favour glycolysis. The latter would seem to remain operative in hyperglycemic and ketoacidotic diabetic animals.     

Protective effect of Urtica dioica L. on renal ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat

Renal ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury may occur after renal transplantation, thoracoabdominal aortic surgery, and renal artery interventions. This study was designed to investigate the effect of Urtica dioica L. (UD), in I/R induced renal injury. A total of 32 male Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into four groups: control, UD alone, I/R and I/R?+?UD; each group contain 8 animals. A rat model of renal I/R injury was induced by 45-min occlusion of the bilateral renal pedicles and 24-h reperfusion. In the UD group, 3?days before I/R, UD (2?ml/kg/day intraperitoneal) was administered by gastric gavage. All animals were sacrificed at the end of reperfusion and kidney tissues samples were obtained for histopathological investigation in all groups. To date, no more histopathological changes on intestinal I/R injury in rats by UD treatment have been reported. Renal I/R caused severe histopathological injury including tubular damage, atrophy dilatation, loss of brush border and hydropic epithelial cell degenerations, renal corpuscle atrophy, glomerular shrinkage, markedly focal mononuclear cell infiltrations in the kidney. UD treatment significantly attenuated the severity of intestinal I/R injury and significantly lowered tubulointerstitial damage score than the I/R group. The number of PCNA and TUNEL positive cells in the control and UD alone groups was negligible. When kidney sections were PCNA and TUNEL stained, there was a clear increase in the number of positive cells in the I/R group rats in the renal cortical tissues. However, there is a significant reduction in the activity of PCNA and TUNEL in kidney tissue of renal injury induced by renal I/R with UD therapy. Our results suggest that administration of UD attenuates renal I/R injury. These results suggest that UD treatment has a protective effect against renal damage induced by renal I/R. This protective effect is possibly due to its ability to inhibit I/R induced renal damage, apoptosis and cell proliferation.     

Low‐energy shock wave pretreatment recruit circulating endothelial progenitor cells to attenuate renal ischaemia reperfusion injury

Low‐energy shock wave (LESW) has been recognized as a promising non‐invasive intervention to prevent the organs or tissues against ischaemia reperfusion injury (IRI), whereas its effect on kidney injury is rarely explored. To investigate the protective role of pretreatment with LESW on renal IRI in rats, animals were randomly divided into Sham, LESW, IRI and LESW + IRI groups. At 4, 12, 24 hours and 3 and 7 days after reperfusion, serum samples and renal tissues were harvested for performing the analysis of renal function, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry and Western blot, as well as enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. Moreover, circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) were isolated, labelled with fluorescent dye and injected by tail vein. The fluorescent signals of EPCs were detected using fluorescence microscope and in vivo imaging system to track the distribution of injected circulating EPCs. Results showed that pretreatment with LESW could significantly reduce kidney injury biomarkers, tubular damage, and cell apoptosis, and promote cell proliferation and vascularization in IRI kidneys. The renoprotective role of LESW pretreatment would be attributed to the remarkably increased EPCs in the treated kidneys, part of which were recruited from circulation through SDF‐1/CXCR7 pathway. In conclusion, pretreatment with LESW could increase the recruitment of circulating EPCs to attenuate and repair renal IRI.     

Tissue Specific Expression of Glutathione S-transferases, Glutathione Content and Lipid Peroxidation in Camel Tissues

Differential expression of glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzyme activity in various tissues of the camel was observed with a maximum activity in the liver. Compared with the rat and human livers, GST activity in camel liver was 50% lower than that of rat liver and similar to that of human liver. Extrahepatic tissues in camel have a comparable GST activity with those of similar tissues in the rat. Assay of GST activity using ethacrynic acid as substrate demonstrated maximum activity in the camel brain followed by intestine, liver and kidney. Microsomal GST activity in camel tissues was expressed in the order of liver > testis > intestine ≈ kidney ≈ brain. Phenotyping of GST was performed in camel hepatic and extrahepatic tissues using human specific antibodies to class α, μ, and π cytosolic GST isoenzymes and rat specific antibody to the microsomal GST. Western immunoblot and immunohistochemical analyses showed an abundant expression of GST α and μ in the camel liver, while π was very poorly expressed. Camel extrahepatic tissues however, had a significant expression of GST π. The camel GST isoenzymes were found to be predominantly expressed in the hepatocytes around the central vein with a gradual decrease in expression in the hepatocytes located toward the periphery. Kidney cortex exhibited a greater expression of the enzyme protein in the proximal tubules as compared to the glomeruli. Glutathione (GSH) concentration in rat tissues, except in the brain, was about 2-fold higher than that of camel tissues. Rate of NADPH-dependent microsomal lipid peroxidation was comparable both in the rat and camel tissues with the highest activity in the brain and lowest activity in the intestine. The differential expression of GST isoenzymes in different organs of the camel, GSH concentration and the rate of lipid peroxidation in different tissues may be important factors in determining the differential susceptibility of camel tissues to the toxic effects of xenobiotics.     

Immunohistochemical localization of Pax2 and associated proteins in the developing kidney of mice with renal hypoplasia.

Pax2 has been identified as a key regulatory protein associated with renal developmental malformations. The purpose of this study was to determine whether Pax2 protein expression, and that of other proteins important for normal renal development, is abnormally distributed in the prenatal kidney of the Brachyrrhine (Br) mouse that displays heritable renal hypoplasia. Embryonic 3H1 +/+ and Br/Br mice were collected between E11.0 and E18.0. Routine light microscopy and immunohistochemical analysis using antibodies to Pax2, E-cadherin, fibronectin, laminin, and Type IV collagen were applied to sequential tissue sections. E-cadherin stained consistently in the renal tubules of both normal and mutant animals. Whereas the initial expression of Pax2 corresponded between normal and mutant kidneys, it became progressively limited to the nephrogenic zone in +/+ animals, while distributing erratically in the Br/Br kidney. Fibronectin was not expressed in the normal nephrogenic zone but remained abundantly distributed throughout the Br/Br kidney. Luminin and Type IV collagen staining revealed a deficiency in renal vasculature formation in Br/Br kidneys. Results suggest that initial morphological differentiation occurs normally in the Br kidney but that subsequent nephric formation is associated with abnormal distribution of Pax2 and ECM proteins. (J Histochem Cytochem 49:1081-1097, 2001)     

Blood vessels and excretory apparatus of the kidney in some wild animals.

On 110 preparations of the kidney in some wild animals (hare, fox, wolf, bear, boar and chamois), the blood vessels and the excretory apparatus were studied by dissection, injection-corrosion and microscope. Only the bear has a markedly split kidney, whereas the kidneys of the other animals are unsplit. In the fox there is an obvious split of the renal artery into anterior and posterior branches which supply the anterior and posterior portion, respectively, of the renal parenchyma, being separated from each other, so that we may speak of an anterior and posterior kidney. In the fox, wolf, hare and chamois the interlobar arteries pass through the renal calices in a loop composed of adipose tissue, invested by the epithelium of the renal calyx. The renculi of the bear kidney show complete autonomy in relation to the blood vessels as well as in relation to the excretory apparatus. The relation of the surface of the excretory apparatus to the whole kidney was studied. Thus we have found the fox to have relatively the largest excretory apparatus, whose surface amounts to 31% of the whole kidney. In the remainder of the animals investigated this percentage is considerably less, ranging from 21.7% (boar) to 26.7% (bear).     

大鼠左肾静脉狭窄致左肾淤血性损伤模型的建立

目的观察大鼠左肾静脉不同程度狭窄所致左肾病变,为实验研究左肾静脉受压综合征肾组织淤血性损伤提供合适的动物模型。方法采用左肾静脉不全结扎的方法建立大鼠左肾静脉狭窄模型。将大鼠分为4组,假手术组和左肾静脉狭窄1.0mm模型组、0.7mm模型组、0.5mm模型组。术后7周处死动物。肾组织行病理学检查。肾皮质匀浆检测丙二醛（MDA）含量和超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）活性。结果病理学检查见1.0mm模型组未见明显病变,0.7mm和0.5mm模型组肾小球系膜区增生,小管、间质细胞浸润和纤维化形成,0.5mm模型组病变程度较重。各模型组左肾皮质丙二醛含量均显著增高,超氧化物歧化酶活性均显著降低,变化幅度随狭窄程度的增大而增大。结论大鼠左肾静脉狭窄程度为0.7mm时,各项观察指标与胡桃夹综合征（NCS）患者的临床实际情况最接近,而1.0mm和0.5mm相对偏轻和偏重,0.7mm模型组可以作为大鼠左肾静脉狭窄致左肾淤血实验研究的合适模型。     

Autoradiographic discrimination of brain and atrial natriuretic peptide-binding sites in the rat kidney.

Brain (BNP) and atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP) have been identified which may represent endogenous agonists of kidney receptor subtypes. Quantitative in vitro autoradiography was used to investigate the regional distribution of receptor subpopulations and the competitive inhibition of 125I porcine BNP1-26 (pBNP1-26) and 125I rat alpha-ANP1-28 (rANP1-28) renal binding sites. Specific, high affinity binding (Kd 0.2-1.37 nM range) was localized to glomeruli, inner medulla, interlobar and arcuate arteries, vasa recta bundles, and smooth muscle in the renal pelvis. pBNP1-26 competed for the same sites as rANP1-28 but displayed a lower potency and was less selective for nonclearance sites. Clearance binding sites were discriminated by competitive inhibition with C-ANP4-23 and comprised some 65% of glomerular sites as well as the vast majority of sites in the renal pelvis. Nonclearance sites predominated in the inner medulla and intrarenal arteries. C-terminal changes in amino acid sequence induced a significant loss of inhibitory potency. Immunohistochemical studies identified a distinct population of BNP-like immunoreactive renal nerve fibers, associated with intra-renal arteries. Circulating natriuretic peptides and BNP sequences derived from renal nerves may influence renal function by interacting with specific receptor subpopulations in the kidney.     

Lectin activity and distribution of chicken lactose lectin I in the extracellular matrix of the chick developing kidney

A lectin activity inhibitable by thiodigalactose, N-acetyllactosamine, lactulose, lactose and by an antibody raised against CLL I (chicken-lactose lectin I) has been investigated in the chick embryo developing kidney. At post-induction stages this activity was found in both mesonephros and metanephros. In immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy, the extracellular distribution of CLL I was similar in the mesonephros and the metanephros. The lectin was never found intracellularly; cultured kidney cells did not express any endogenous lectin but were rich in lectin-receptor sites, which led to the hyphothesis that CLL I is not produced in situ but could be adsorbed on renal cells. Potential physiological roles for embryonic lectins are discussed.     

Kidney growth in normal and diabetic mice is not affected by human insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 administration

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) accumulates in the kidney following the onset of diabetes, initiating diabetic renal hypertrophy. Increased renal IGF-I protein content, which is not reflected in messenger RNA (mRNA) levels, suggests that renal IGF-I accumulation is due to sequestration of circulating IGF-I rather than to local synthesis. It has been suggested that IGF-I is trapped in the kidney by IGF binding protein 1 (IGFBP-1). We administered purified human IGFBP-1 (hIGFBP-1) to nondiabetic and diabetic mice as three daily sc injections for 14 days, starting 6 days after induction of streptozotocin diabetes when the animals were overtly diabetic. Markers of early diabetic renal changes (i.e., increased kidney weight, glomerular volume, and albuminuria) coincided with accumulation of renal cortical IGF-I despite decreased mRNA levels in 20-day diabetic mice. Human IGFBP-1 administration had no effect on increased kidney weight or albuminuria in early diabetes, although it abolished renal cortical IGF-I accumulation and glomerular hypertrophy in diabetic mice. Increased IGF-I levels in kidneys of normal mice receiving hIGFBP-1 were not reflected on kidney parameters. IGFBP-1 administration in diabetic mice had only minor effects on diabetic renal changes. Accordingly, these results did not support the hypothesis that IGFBP-1 plays a major role in early renal changes in diabetes.     

The influence of adrenal vein occlusion on whole-kidney hemodynamics in the spontaneously hypertensive rats.

It has been shown that occlusion of the adrenal vein causes an increase in renal vascular resistance in the ipsilateral kidney in Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY). The most probable mechanism of this phenomenon is the direct inflow of adrenal catecholamines to the kidney by the adrenal renal portal circulation (ARPC). As the number of vessels of the ARPC is bigger and the tonic sympathetic activity is higher in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), the aim of the current study was to compare the effect of adrenal vein occlusion on renal vascular resistance between SHR and WKY. Mean arterial blood pressure and renal blood flow (RBF) were measured and renal vascular resistance (RVR) was calculated before and after closure of the adrenal vein. Occlusion of the adrenal vein significantly reduced RBF and increased RVR in both strains of rats. The rise of the RVR was significantly higher in SHR than in WKY. Therefore we assume that the hemodynamic responsiveness of the kidney due to increase in blood flow through ARPC is greater in SHR and may contribute to the development of arterial hypertension in this strain of rat.     

Evaluation of kidney repair capacity using Tc-DMSA in ischemia/reperfusion injury models

Quantitative ^99mTc-DMSA renal uptake was studied in different renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) mice models for the assessment of renal repair capacity. Mice models of nephrectomy, uni- and bi-lateral I/R together with sham-operated mice were established. At 1 h, 1 d, 4 d, 1, 2 and 3 wk after I/R, ^99mTc-DMSA (27.7 ± 1.3 MBq) was injected via tail vein and after 3 h post-injection, the mice were scanned for 30 min with pinhole equipped gamma camera. Higher uptake of ^99mTc-DMSA was measured in normal kidneys of uni-lateral I/R model and nephrectomized kidney I/R model at 3 wk post-surgery. Comparing the restoration capacities of the affected kidneys of nephrectomy, uni- and bi-lateral I/R models, higher repair capacity was observed in the nephrectomized model followed by bi-lateral then uni-lateral models. The normal kidney may retard the restoration of damaged kidney in uni-lateral I/R model. Moreover, 3 wk after Uni-I/R, the size of injured kidney was significantly smaller than non-ischemic contralateral and sham operated kidneys, while nephrectomy I/R kidneys were significantly enlarged compared to all others at 3 wk post-surgery. Very strong correlation between ^99mTc-DMSA uptake and weight of dissected kidneys in I/R models was observed. Consistent with ^99mTc-DMSA uptake results, all histological results indicate that kidney recovery after injury is correlated with the amount of intact tubules and kidney sizes. In summary, our study showed good potentials of ^99mTc-DMSA scan as a promising non-invasive method for evaluation of kidney restoration after I/R injuries. Interestingly, mice with Bi-I/R injury showed faster repair capacity than those with uni-I/R.