产前轻微应激易化由围产期注射引起的行为改变并弱化奥氮平的作用（英文）

产前母体处于应激状态下,可以削弱子代的神经系统对外界不良刺激影响的抵抗能力.但产前应激状态是否可以影响抗精神疾病药物对动物行为的增益作用,目前还没有明确的结论.此外,在动物实验中,动物需要经常接受注射操作,注射操作本身是否会影响动物行为,尚未有相关研究.在本实验中,探索了产前轻微应激状态、围产期注射操作和抗精神疾病药物对动物行为可能的交互影响.母鼠在经历产前轻微应激状态后生产子代,雄性仔鼠在围产期(日龄第7,9,11天)不接受注射或接受盐水或奥氮平注射(2 mg/kg,腹腔注射).在其亚成年期(日龄第35天)和成年期(日龄第60天),观察其社交和嗅觉辨识行为,分析了总探索时间和对新旧刺激的偏好程度两个参数.我们发现,围产期重复注射操作可以改变产前应激组大鼠在社交和嗅觉辨识实验中的偏好程度,对无应激组大鼠没有影响.奥氮平注射可以增长无应激组大鼠在社交活动中的总探索时间,对应激组大鼠没有影响.研究表明,产前轻微应激状态可以易化诸如围产期注射操作等不良环境刺激导致的行为异常,并减弱抗精神疾病药物的对神经系统的影响.     

产前束缚应激子代大鼠海马神经颗粒素表达降低

神经颗粒素（neurogranin,NG）是脑特异性突触后蛋白,参与在学习记忆功能中起核心作用的信号转导通路及突触可塑性。本研究旨在探讨产前束缚应激对子代大鼠海马NG表达的影响。连续7d对孕晚期大鼠进行束缚应激,建立产前束缚应激模型,分为对照雌、雄组,应激雌、雄组。采用免疫组化方法观察NG在产前束缚应激子代大鼠海马不同亚区的分布特点;采用蛋白免疫印迹方法检测产前束缚应激子代大鼠海马NG蛋白的表达。结果显示：各组子代大鼠海马各区均有NG蛋白表达,CA1和CA3区表达高于齿状回（dentate gyrus,DG）;应激组雌、雄子代大鼠海马NG的表达明显低于对照组（P〈0．01）,应激组雌性子代比雄性子代减少更显著,对照组雌、雄子代之间无差异。免疫组化与蛋白免疫印迹方法所得结果一致。上述结果表明,NG在产前束缚应激子代大鼠海马表达降低,并且雌性比雄性降低明显,NG对产前束缚应激子代大鼠有差异性调制,NG表达减少可能与产前束缚应激子代大鼠学习记忆能力下降有关。     

产前束缚应激对子代大鼠海马神经干细胞增殖及巢蛋白表达的影响

为了观察产前束缚应激对子代大鼠空间学习记忆能力、海马神经干细胞增殖及巢蛋白表达的影响,将体重240~260 g的Sprague-Dawley雌性母鼠12只随机分成2组,对照组于孕期不做任何处理,束缚应激组于孕14~20 d时给予束缚应激,3次/天,45 min/次。取1月龄子代大鼠进行实验研究。Morris水迷宫定位航行实验结果显示,应激组子代与对照组相比,到达平台的潜伏期延长(P0.05),而在空间探索实验中,应激组子代在原平台象限停留时间与对照组相比无显著差异。免疫组织化学结果显示,应激组雌性子代海马巢蛋白(nestin)和BrdU阳性细胞表达均较对照组显著增加(P0.05),而雄性子代海马nestin和BrdU阳性细胞表达与对照组相比无显著性差异(P0.05)。以上结果提示,产前束缚应激可引起雌性子代大鼠海马神经干细胞数量增加以及增殖能力增强,可能与机体对产前应激所致脑损伤的代偿性反应相关。     

产前应激引起子鼠的抑郁样行为和HDACs的改变

越来越多的研究发现产前应激(prenatal stress,PS)能引起子代大鼠的抑郁样行为。然而,其脑内潜在分子机制仍有许多不为人知。为了探讨PS对一月龄子代大鼠抑郁样行为及其脑内组蛋白去乙酰化酶(histone deacetylases,HDACs)的影响,本研究选用32只子代雄鼠为研究对象,以每组8只分为4组:对照组(control,C)、产前应激组(PS)、产前应激给丁酸钠(sodium butyrate,Na B)组(PS+Na B)和产前应激给生理盐水(normal saline,NS)组(PS+NS)。所有子鼠在生后第30天进行强迫游泳和高价十字迷宫的行为学检测,然后断头取脑,用RT-PCR检测海马、皮层中HDAC2和HDAC5的基因表达水平。结果表明:与对照组相比,PS子鼠抑郁样行为增加,并伴随着海马HDAC5的过表达,而皮层HDAC5表达没有明显改变;PS子鼠给与Na B腹腔注射后,抑郁样行为改善,海马HDAC5表达也明显降低。HDAC2在各组子鼠的海马和皮层中均没有明显差异。该文不仅揭示了PS通过诱导HDAC5的改变从而引起子鼠的抑郁样行为,同时也为抗抑郁症药物的研究提供新的理论依据和药物靶点。     

产前应激子代大鼠海马核转录因子-κB表达的性别差异

本研究采用免疫组织化学和Western blot检测NF-κB p65/p50在产前应激子代海马的表达,并探讨其表达是否存在性别差异。研究结果显示,在雌性子代,中、晚期应激组海马齿状回p65表达显著低于对照组（P〈0．01）,而海马各区p50表达均显著高于对照组（P〈0．01）,中、晚期应激组间p65和p50表达均有显著差异（P〈0．01）。在雄性子代,中、晚期应激组海马齿状回p65表达显著高于对照组（P〈0．01）,晚期应激组海马各区p50表达均显著低于对照组（P〈0．05,P〈0．01）,中、晚期应激组间p65和p50表达均有显著差异（P〈0．01）。雌、雄子代比较,对照组雌、雄p65表达差异极显著妒〈0．01）,p50仅在海马CA1区表达差异极显著（P〈0．01）;中期应激组雌、雄子代大鼠海马p65／p50表达无显著差异;晚期应激组雌、雄海马p65／p50表达均有极显著差异（P〈0．01）。Western blot与免疫组织化学结果基本一致。结果表明,产前不同时期的应激显著影响子代海马NF-κB p65和p50表达,且有性别差异,这可能是产前应激对子代雌、雄大鼠学习记忆能力影响差异的机制之一。     

产前应激对子代大鼠脑缺血/再灌注后星形胶质细胞的影响

目的：探讨产前应激对雄性子代大鼠大脑中动脉缺血/再灌注后星形胶质细胞的影响。方法：SD孕鼠随机分为有产前应激处理（妊娠第15到21天每日3次限制活动）和无产前应激处理,并对其雄性子代大鼠采用线栓法制备大脑中动脉闭塞（MCAO）模型,共分为产前应激+假手术组、MCAO模型组、产前应激+MCAO组（n=10）,于再灌注后第5天检测脑梗死体积,免疫荧光双标染色检测缺血灶边缘区星形胶质细胞形态及促红细胞生成素肝细胞受体A4（EphA4）和胶质纤维酸性蛋白（GFAP）的共表达情况,并采用Western blot检测EphA4、GFAP和神经蛋白聚糖（Neurocan）蛋白表达。结果：产前应激+MCAO组子代大鼠脑梗死体积百分比、EphA4、GFAP和Neurocan蛋白表达均较MCAO组显著增加（P均<0.05）,且GFAP阳性细胞形态学改变及EphA4/GFAP共表达也较MCAO组明显。结论：产前应激可能改变子代大鼠脑缺血/再灌注后星形胶质细胞上EphA4受体的表达,促进星形胶质细胞活化,产生神经蛋白聚糖。     

大鼠产前母体冷应激对子代自发、探索及焦虑行为的影响*

目的: 研究产前冷应激对妊娠大鼠子代行为及情绪的影响。方法: 将6只SPF级Wister妊娠母鼠,随机分为常温对照组和冷应激组,每组3只。常温对照组妊娠母鼠在(22±2)℃的环境中饲养,冷应激组妊娠母鼠在产前7 d置于人工智能气候室(4±0.1)℃中饲养,待产下幼鼠以后,分为常温对照组公鼠(MR,22只),常温对照组母鼠(FR,15只),冷应激组公鼠(MC,15只),冷应激组母鼠(FC,15只)四组,在子代第四周龄时进行旷场实验、高架十字迷宫实验。结果: 在旷场实验中,常温对照组公鼠、母鼠与冷应激组公鼠、母鼠的自发活动、探索行为之间无明显差异(P＞0.05)。在高架十字迷宫实验中,冷应激组公鼠、母鼠的开臂滞留时间、开臂进入次数及路程等总体上显著高于常温对照组公鼠、母鼠(P＜0.05)。结论: 产前母体冷应激对子代自发活动、探索行为及活跃程度无显著影响,但子代出现明显的焦虑行为减少的异常行为。     

产前应激子代大鼠海马核转录因子-кB表达的性别差异

;本研究采用免疫组织化学和Western blot检测NF-кB p65/p50在产前应激子代海马的表达,并探讨其表达是否存在性别差异.研究结果显示,在雌性子代,中、晚期应激组海马齿状回p65表达显著低于对照组(P＜0.01),而海马各区p50表达均显著高于对照组(P＜0.01),中、晚期应激组间p65和p50表达均有显著差异(P＜0.01).在雄性子代,中、晚期应激组海马齿状回p65表达显著高于对照组(P＜0.01),晚期应激组海马各区p50表达均显著低于对照组(P＜0.05,P＜0.01),中、晚期应激组间p65和p50表达均有显著差异(P＜0.01).雌、雄子代比较,对照组雌、雄p65表达差异极显著(P＜0.01),p50仅在海马CA1区表达差异极显著(P＜0.01);中期应激组雌、雄子代大鼠海马p65/p50表达无显著差异;晚期应激组雌、雄海马p65/p50表达均有极显著差异(P＜0.01).Western blot与免疫组织化学结果基本一致.结果表明,产前不同时期的应激显著影响子代海马NF-кB p65和p50表达,且有性别差异,这可能是产前应激对子代雌、雄大鼠学习记忆能力影响差异的机制之一.     

产前应激对子代大鼠海马CA3区神经元Ca2+和K+通道的影响

本研究的目的在于探讨产前应激对子代大鼠海马CA3神经元高电压激活(HVA)钙通道、延迟整流钾电流(delayedrectifierpotassiumcurrents,IKD)的影响。产前应激(prenatalstress,PNS)组孕鼠孕晚期给予束缚应激,应用全细胞膜片钳技术进行研究。结果显示产前应激增加了子代海马CA3神经元HVA钙通道峰电流幅值,对照组和产前应激组子代CA3神经元平均最大HVA钙电流峰值分别为-576.52±7.03pA和-702.05±6.82pA(P<0.01)。同时未改变其电导-电压关系,也未改变延迟整流钾通道电流-电压关系、电导-电压关系。结果提示,在胎儿发育的关键时期,给予母体产前应激,引起子代海马神经元HVA钙电流增加,其机制一方面PNS导致皮质酮升高,从而可能增加HVA钙通道mRNA表达;另一方面PNS所致反应性氧化产物(reactiveoxygenspecies,ROS)增多,后者可能通过磷酸化HVACa2 通道亚单位,从而提高HVA钙电流幅值。     

大鼠新生期注射谷氨酸单钠成年后应激时的镇痛效应和血浆皮质酮反应

在大鼠新生期注射谷氨酸单钠,观察动物成年后应激时的镇痛效应和血浆皮质酮反应,以新生期注射１０％ＮａＣｌ作为等渗对照。ＭＳＧ组大鼠下丘脑弓状核的β－内啡肽免疫反应细胞减少６０．７％,痛阈和血浆质酮的基础值未受影响,在不可射避的持续电刺激四肢脚底３０ｍｉｎ后,ＭＳＧ组动物应激镇痛效应明显降低,但应激仍可使血浆皮质酮水平明显升高。实验结果提示,ＡＲＣ的β－ＥＮＤ能神经元参与激镇痛,而对垂体－肾上腺皮质系     

Fluoxetine during development reverses the effects of prenatal stress on depressive-like behavior and hippocampal neurogenesis in adolescence

Depression during pregnancy and the postpartum period is a growing health problem, which affects up to 20% of women. Currently, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) medications are commonly used for treatment of maternal depression. Unfortunately, there is very little research on the long-term effect of maternal depression and perinatal SSRI exposure on offspring development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the role of exposure to fluoxetine during development on affective-like behaviors and hippocampal neurogenesis in adolescent offspring in a rodent model of maternal depression. To do this, gestationally stressed and non-stressed Sprague-Dawley rat dams were treated with either fluoxetine (5 mg/kg/day) or vehicle beginning on postnatal day 1 (P1). Adolescent male and female offspring were divided into 4 groups: 1) prenatal stress+fluoxetine exposure, 2) prenatal stress+vehicle, 3) fluoxetine exposure alone, and 4) vehicle alone. Adolescent offspring were assessed for anxiety-like behavior using the Open Field Test and depressive-like behavior using the Forced Swim Test. Brains were analyzed for endogenous markers of hippocampal neurogenesis via immunohistochemistry. Results demonstrate that maternal fluoxetine exposure reverses the reduction in immobility evident in prenatally stressed adolescent offspring. In addition, maternal fluoxetine exposure reverses the decrease in hippocampal cell proliferation and neurogenesis in maternally stressed adolescent offspring. This research provides important evidence on the long-term effect of fluoxetine exposure during development in a model of maternal adversity.     

Prenatal Stress Produces Social Behavior Deficits and Alters the Number of Oxytocin and Vasopressin Neurons in Adult Rats

The present study investigated the long-lasting effects of prenatal repeated restraint stress on social behavior and anxiety, as well as its repercussions on oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (VP)-positive neurons of the paraventricular (PVN) and supraoptic (SON) nuclei from stressed pups in adulthood. Female Wistar rats were exposed to restraint stress in the last 7 days of pregnancy. At birth, pups were cross-fostered and assigned to the following groups: prenatally non-stressed offspring raised by prenatally non-stressed mothers (NS:NS), prenatally non-stressed offspring raised by prenatally stressed mothers (S:NS), prenatally stressed offspring raised by prenatally non-stressed mothers (NS:S), prenatally stressed offspring raised by prenatally stressed mothers (S:S). As adults, male prenatally stressed offspring raised both by stressed mothers (S:S group) and non-stressed ones (NS:S group) showed impaired social memory and interaction. In addition, when both adverse conditions coexisted (S:S group), increased anxiety-like behavior and aggressiveness was observed in association with a decrease in the number of OT-positive magnocellular neurons, VP-positive magnocellular and parvocellular neurons of the PVN. The NS:S group exhibited a reduction in the amount of VP-positive magnocellular neurons compared to the S:NS. Thus, the social behavior deficits observed in the S:S and NS:S groups may be only partially associated with these alterations to the peptidergic systems. No changes were shown in the OT and VP cellular composition of the SON nucleus. Nevertheless, it is clear that a special attention should be given to the gestational period, since stressful events during this time may be related to the emergence of behavioral impairments in adulthood.     

Gender-specific effects of prenatal stress on emotional reactivity and stress physiology of goat kids

The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of maternal stress during pregnancy on the emotional reactivity, the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis, and the sympatho-adrenomedullary (SAM) system of goat offspring according to their gender, and to investigate the role of maternal cortisol in prenatal stress effects. Goats were exposed to ten transports in isolation or ten ACTH injections (0.125 IU/kg body weight) during the last third of pregnancy. Control goats remained undisturbed. No effect of repeated transport during the last third of pregnancy was found on basal cortisol concentrations of the offspring. However, an increase in phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase activity in the adrenals was observed in prenatally stressed kids compared to control kids (P = 0.031). In the presence of novelty, prenatally stressed female kids were more active (P = 0.049) than control females; they also showed more signs of arousal (P = 0.039) and tended to explore more of their environment (P = 0.053) in reaction to a startling stimulus. On the contrary, prenatally stressed male kids tended to be less active (P = 0.051) than control male kids but showed more signs of distress (P = 0.047) in the presence of novelty. Intermediate effects were found on the emotional reactivity to novelty of kids born from dams given injections of ACTH. In conclusion, transport stress in pregnant goats affects the sympatho-adrenomedullary system and the emotional reactivity of their offspring in a gender-specific manner. Moreover, the effects of prenatal transport and ACTH injections showed some similarities but differed in some critical details.     

Effects of maternal corticosterone and stress on behavioral and hormonal indices of formalin pain in male and female offspring of different ages

In previous studies, we showed for the first time that prenatal stress in rats produces long-term alterations of formalin-induced pain behavior that are dependent on age and sex, and we demonstrated an important role of the serotonergic system in mechanisms of prenatal stress (Butkevich, I.P. and Vershinina, E.A., 2001; Butkevich, I.P. and Vershinina, E.A., 2003; Butkevich, I.P., Mikhailenko, V.A., Vershinina, E.A., Khozhai, L.I., Grigorev, I.P., Otellin, V.A., 2005; Butkevich, I.P., Mikhailenko, V.A., Khozhai, L.I., Otellin, V.A., 2006). In the present study, we focus on the influence of the maternal corticosterone milieu and its role in the effects of stress during pregnancy on formalin-induced pain and the corticosterone response to it in male and female offspring of different ages. For this purpose, we used adrenalectomy (AD) in female rats 3-4 weeks before mating (as distinct from AD typically performed at the beginning of pregnancy). Since AD is considered a reliable method to treat hypercortisolism, researches on the effects of long-term AD in dams on the systems responsible for adaptive behavior in offspring are important (such studies are not described in the literature). The results demonstrate that the differences in the corticosterone response to injection of formalin and saline are obvious in 90-day-old (adult) female offspring but masked in 25-day-old ones. AD promoted the corticosterone response to formalin-induced pain but not to injection of saline in prenatally non-stressed female offspring of both ages. Prenatal stress canceled the differences in corticosterone response to injection of formalin and saline in 25-day-old offspring of AD dams and in adult offspring of sham-operated (SH) dams but caused similar differences in adult offspring of AD dams. Sex differences were found in basal corticosterone levels in AD prenatally stressed rats of both age groups, with a higher level in females, and in the corticosterone response to formalin-induced pain in the adult rats of all groups investigated, with higher corticosterone levels in females. In regard to pain behavior, AD induced significant changes in flexing + shaking in prenatally non-stressed adult offspring and canceled the differences in this behavior between non-stressed and stressed 25-day-old offspring. There were sex differences in pain behavior of the adult rats: greater flexing + shaking in AD non-stressed males but in SH non-stressed females; greater licking in prenatally-stressed AD and SH females. These results indicate that the long-term influences of maternal corticosterone on formalin-induced pain and the corticosterone response to it are determined by the sex and age of the offspring and suggest that other mechanisms, including serotonergic ones revealed in our previous studies, are involved in the effects of prenatal stress on inflammatory pain behavior.     

Characterization of depression-like behavior in prenatally stressed female rats during ovary cycle

The aim of the present work was a comparative analysis of dynamics of depression-like behavior in prenatally stressed and non-prenatally stressed female rats in the key phases of the ovary cycle. It was found that non-stressed female rats demonstrated high level of depression-like behavior in proestrous phase as compared to the diestrous phase, whereas these rats showed low level of depression-like behavior in estrous phase in Porsolt's test. On the contrary, there were no significant differences in extent of depression-like behavior between prenatally stressed rats in the diestrous and proestrous, although in the phase of estrous in these animals an increase in level of depression-like behavior was noted. Thus, the results of this study indicated pronounced effects of prenatal stress on the character of depression-like behavior of females in different phases of ovary cycle. This study revealed leveling and reversed action of prenatal stress on depression-like behavior in key phases of sexual cycle in female rats.     

Prenatal stress in rat causes long-term spatial memory deficit and hippocampus MRI abnormality: differential effects of postweaning enriched environment

Prenatal stress (PS) can cause long-term hippocampus alternations in structure and plasticity in adult offspring. Enriched environment (EE) has an effect in rescuing a variety of neurological disorders. Pregnant dams were left undisturbed (prenatal control, PC) or restrained 6h per day from days 14 to 21 (prenatal stress, PS). Control and prenatal stressed offspring rats were subjected to a standard rearing environment (SE) or an EE on postnatal days 22-120 (PC/SE PC/EE, PS/SE, and PS/EE; n=5, each group). At ～4 months of age, all rats underwent Morris water maze test and brain MRI examination. Hippocampi were then dissected for biochemical analyses, including, Western blot for NMDA receptor (NR) subunits and synaptophysin and RT-PCR forβ1 integrin and tissue-plasminogen activator (t-PA). MRI showed all 5 rats in the PS/SE group and 5 in the PS/EE group exhibited increased signals in bilateral hippocampus and increased T2 time in the PS/SE group. Exposure to EE treatment on postnatal days 22-120 counteracted the deficit in spatial memory and increased NR1 protein expression, but it did not affect the rate of high signals and increased T2 time, decreased NR2, synaptophysin, β1 integrin and t-PA mRNA expressions in PS adult offspring. The results of this study indicate PS in rats causes long-term spatial memory deficits and gross hippocampus pathology. Postnatal EE treatment has differential benefits in terms of spatial learning, signaling molecules, and gross hippocampus pathology.     

Study of long-lasting effects of acute prenatal stress induced forced swimming

The aim of the present work was to assess long-lasting effects of acute prenatal stress in white rats. Forced swimming in cold water on the 7th or the 14th gestational day was used as a prenatal stressor. The prenatal stress led to low birthweight of offspring and their delayed growth rate during the second month of life. Prenatally stressed animals showed abnormalities in exploratory behavior and anxiety, increased emotionality and impaired learning capabilities at the age of 1-2 month. Consequently, acute stress on the 7th and at the 14th day of pregnancy induced long-lasting negative behavioral changes in offspring of stressed white rats.     

Prenatal stress increases anxiety related behavior and alters cerebral lateralization of dopamine activity

Effects of unpredictable (random) prenatal stress on the level of anxiety and cerebral lateralization of dopamine turnover rates were studied in rats. The observation of a decrease in the amount of time spent in the open arms of a "plus-maze" supported earlier findings of an increased fearfulness to stressful situations in the offspring in adulthood. We also observed elevated rates of dopamine turnover in the right prefrontal cortex and reduced dopamine activity in the right nucleus accumbens and left corpus striatum of the prenatally stressed animals. This resulted in directional shifts of left-right differences in dopamine activity in all 3 areas. These findings indicate that prenatal stress induces permanent alterations in dopaminergic activity and in cerebral asymmetry. We suggest that the changes in cerebral lateralization of dopamine function may underly the increase in reactivity to anxiety-provoking situations in prenatally stressed offspring.     

Reduced Levels of NR1 and NR2A with Depression-Like Behavior in Different Brain Regions in Prenatally Stressed Juvenile Offspring

Adolescence is a time of continued brain maturation, particularly in limbic and cortical regions, which undoubtedly plays a role in the physiological and emotional changes. Juvenile rats repeatedly exposed to prenatal stress (PS) exhibit behavioral features often observed in neuropsychiatric disorders including depression. However, to date the underlying neurological mechanisms are still unclear. In the current study, juvenile offspring rats whose mothers were exposed to PS were evaluated for depression-related behaviors in open field and sucrose preference test. NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A in the hippocampus, frontal cortex and striatum were assayed by western blotting. The results indicated that PS resulted in several behavioral anomalies in the OFT and sucrose preference test. Moreover, reduced levels of NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A in the hippocampus, and NR1 in prefrontal cortex and striatum of prenatally stressed juvenile offspring were found. Treatment with MK-801 to pregnant dams could prevent all those changes in the juvenile offspring. Collectivity, these data support the argument that PS to pregnant dams could induce depression-like behavior, which may be involved with abnormal expression of NR1 and NR2A in specific brain regions, and MK-801 may have antidepressant-like effects on the juvenile offspring.     

Repeated variable prenatal stress alters pre- and postsynaptic gene expression in the rat frontal pole

Exposure of pregnant women to stress during a critical period of fetal brain development is an environmental risk factor for developing schizophrenia in the adult offspring. We have applied a repeated variable stress paradigm to pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats during the last week of gestation coinciding with the second trimester in human brain development. Here we report our findings from a microarray analysis of the frontal pole of the prenatally stressed adult offspring and non-stressed adult controls complemented with measurement of plasma corticosterone levels following exposure to an acute stress. The direction of change of selected genes was confirmed by real time quantitative fluorescence PCR and in situ hybridization. The analysis revealed significant changes in genes associated with the NMDA receptor/postsynaptic density complex and the vesicle exocytosis machinery including NMDA receptor NR1 and NR2A subunits, densin-180, brain enriched guanylate kinase-associated protein, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa, synaphin/complexin and vesicle-associated membrane protein 2/synaptobrevin 2. Interestingly, some of the changes in this animal preparation are analogous to changes observed in schizophrenic and bipolar patients. Our results suggest that application of a repeated variable prenatal stress paradigm during a critical period of fetal brain development reprograms the response of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis to acute stress and results in gene expression changes that may have enduring effects on synaptic function in the offspring during adulthood.