A multi-indicator framework for mapping cultural ecosystem services: The case of freshwater recreational fishing

Despite recent interest, ecosystem services are not yet fully incorporated into private and public decisions about natural resource management. Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are among the most challenging of services to include because they comprise complex ecological and social properties and processes that make them difficult to measure, map or monetize. Like others, CES are vulnerable to landscape changes and unsustainable use. To date, the sustainability of services has not been adequately addressed and few studies have considered measures of service capacity and demand simultaneously. To facilitate sustainability assessments and management of CES, our study objectives were to (1) develop a spatially explicit framework for mapping the capacity of ecosystems to provide freshwater recreational fishing, an important cultural service, (2) map societal demand for freshwater recreational fishing based on license data and identify areas of potential overuse, and (3) demonstrate how maps of relative capacity and relative demand could be interfaced to estimate sustainability of a CES. We mapped freshwater recreational fishing capacity at the 12-digit hydrologic unit-scale in North Carolina and Virginia using a multi-indicator service framework incorporating biophysical and social landscape metrics and mapped demand based on fishing license data. Mapping of capacity revealed a gradual decrease in capacity eastward from the mountains to the coastal plain and that fishing demand was greatest in urban areas. When comparing standardized relative measures of capacity and demand for freshwater recreational fishing, we found that ranks of capacity exceeded ranks of demand in most hydrologic units, except in 17% of North Carolina and 5% of Virginia. Our GIS-based approach to view freshwater recreational fishing through an ecosystem service lens will enable scientists and managers to examine (1) biophysical and social factors that foster or diminish cultural ecosystem services delivery, (2) demand for cultural ecosystem services relative to their capacity, and (3) ecological pressures like potential overuse that affect service sustainability. Ultimately, we expect such analyses to inform decision-making for freshwater recreational fisheries and other cultural ecosystem services.     

Uncovering ecosystem service bundles through social preferences

Ecosystem service assessments have increasingly been used to support environmental management policies, mainly based on biophysical and economic indicators. However, few studies have coped with the social-cultural dimension of ecosystem services, despite being considered a research priority. We examined how ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs emerge from diverging social preferences toward ecosystem services delivered by various types of ecosystems in Spain. We conducted 3,379 direct face-to-face questionnaires in eight different case study sites from 2007 to 2011. Overall, 90.5% of the sampled population recognized the ecosystem's capacity to deliver services. Formal studies, environmental behavior, and gender variables influenced the probability of people recognizing the ecosystem's capacity to provide services. The ecosystem services most frequently perceived by people were regulating services; of those, air purification held the greatest importance. However, statistical analysis showed that socio-cultural factors and the conservation management strategy of ecosystems (i.e., National Park, Natural Park, or a non-protected area) have an effect on social preferences toward ecosystem services. Ecosystem service trade-offs and bundles were identified by analyzing social preferences through multivariate analysis (redundancy analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis). We found a clear trade-off among provisioning services (and recreational hunting) versus regulating services and almost all cultural services. We identified three ecosystem service bundles associated with the conservation management strategy and the rural-urban gradient. We conclude that socio-cultural preferences toward ecosystem services can serve as a tool to identify relevant services for people, the factors underlying these social preferences, and emerging ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs.     

Spatial Covariance between Aesthetic Value & Other Ecosystem Services

Mapping the spatial distribution of ecosystem goods and services represents a burgeoning field of research, although how different services covary with one another remains poorly understood. This is particularly true for the covariation of supporting, provisioning and regulating services with cultural services (the non-material benefits people gain from nature). This is largely because of challenges associated with the spatially specific quantification of cultural ecosystem services. We propose an innovative approach for evaluating a cultural service, the perceived aesthetic value of ecosystems, by quantifying geo-tagged digital photographs uploaded to social media resources. Our analysis proceeds from the premise that images will be captured by greater numbers of people in areas that are more highly valued for their aesthetic attributes. This approach was applied in Cornwall, UK, to carry out a spatial analysis of the covariation between ecosystem services: soil carbon stocks, agricultural production, and aesthetic value. Our findings suggest that online geo-tagged images provide an effective metric for mapping a key component of cultural ecosystem services. They also highlight the non-stationarity in the spatial relationships between patterns of ecosystem services.     

都市生态旅游区土地利用碎片化对生态系统服务价值的影响——以武汉东湖生态旅游区为例

都市生态旅游区是都市生态系统重要的组成部分,聚焦其土地利用碎片化对区域生态系统服务价值的影响,有助于促进都市生态旅游区的保护与合理开发,维护都市生态系统服务的稳定。结合RS、GIS技术量化评估2000—2015年武汉东湖生态旅游区土地生态系统服务价值,并通过景观格局指数测定土地利用碎片化程度,进而理清土地利用和生态系统服务价值的时空演化趋势,最后剖析土地利用碎片化对生态系统服务价值的影响。结果表明:(1)2000—2015年,主要地类向建设用地转换量较大;土地景观明显碎片化趋势,斑块密度由1.67升至1.96,景观多样性指数则由1.59增至1.71。(2)15年间,土地生态系统整体及各项服务价值均呈逐年下降趋势,总价值减少6248.81万元,水域占总体服务价值的80%左右。(3)草地和耕地的面积变化与部分调节性和供给性功能的价值变化呈显著正相关,水域的面积变化对部分支持性和文化性功能的价值和总体价值的下降具有显著推动作用;区域景观斑块密度指数、景观多样性指数和林地、水域的破碎度指数变化与部分支持性和文化性功能的价值变化存在显著相关;水域的碎片化成为东湖观光游憩等文化性功能的价值及生态系统服务总价值下降的关键因素。     

Introducing accessibility analysis in mapping cultural ecosystem services

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the study of the spatial link between service providing areas (SPA) and service benefiting areas (SBA). Understanding the spatial link between SPAs and SBAs is essential when studying the ecosystem service delivery and the fulfilment of ecosystem service demand. However, far too little attention has been paid to the user movement related ecosystem services and where people should be geographically situated in order to benefit from these services. In the movement related services, benefiting areas are equal to providing areas and the spatial link from residential area to SPA is important. The spatial link is addressed through the concept of accessibility which determines the opportunity to move from the area where beneficiaries are located to areas where ecosystem services are produced.This study presents an accessibility approach to the ecosystem services research. Accessibility analyses offer an opportunity to identify the gap between the ecosystems’ potential to produce services and the actual usage possibilities of such services. We demonstrate the suitability of the method by using outdoor recreation and cultural heritage as examples of cultural ecosystem services that people actively want to reach. Accessibility was calculated using a geographical information system-based least-cost path analysis, which measures travel time by car between residential location and the nearest SPA via road network.The examples highlight that accessibility varies according to the ecosystem service and depends mostly on population distribution and travel possibilities. Our results demonstrate that the density of the analysed ecosystem service opportunities is higher near urban areas than elsewhere. The accessibility of different ecosystem services also depends on how much time people are willing to spend for reaching these services. Our study emphasised that, from a population perspective, accessibility analyses provide a powerful tool for illustrating the utilisation possibilities of spatially distributed ecosystem services. The accessibility approach offers great potential to assess the potential use of SPAs and respond to the need to develop a practical tool for ecosystem service research. It effectively shows, for example, the areas where the risk of overuse of ecosystem services is increased. Knowing about the regional differences in ecosystem service usage also gives background information for the decision-makers for drawing conclusions about how much and where it is sensible to invest in the maintenance of ecosystem services.     

Ecosystem Services and Opportunity Costs Shift Spatial Priorities for Conserving Forest Biodiversity

Inclusion of spatially explicit information on ecosystem services in conservation planning is a fairly new practice. This study analyses how the incorporation of ecosystem services as conservation features can affect conservation of forest biodiversity and how different opportunity cost constraints can change spatial priorities for conservation. We created spatially explicit cost-effective conservation scenarios for 59 forest biodiversity features and five ecosystem services in the county of Telemark (Norway) with the help of the heuristic optimisation planning software, Marxan with Zones. We combined a mix of conservation instruments where forestry is either completely (non-use zone) or partially restricted (partial use zone). Opportunity costs were measured in terms of foregone timber harvest, an important provisioning service in Telemark. Including a number of ecosystem services shifted priority conservation sites compared to a case where only biodiversity was considered, and increased the area of both the partial (+36.2%) and the non-use zone (+3.2%). Furthermore, opportunity costs increased (+6.6%), which suggests that ecosystem services may not be a side-benefit of biodiversity conservation in this area. Opportunity cost levels were systematically changed to analyse their effect on spatial conservation priorities. Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services trades off against timber harvest. Currently designated nature reserves and landscape protection areas achieve a very low proportion (9.1%) of the conservation targets we set in our scenario, which illustrates the high importance given to timber production at present. A trade-off curve indicated that large marginal increases in conservation target achievement are possible when the budget for conservation is increased. Forty percent of the maximum hypothetical opportunity costs would yield an average conservation target achievement of 79%.     

基于SolVES模型的生态系统服务社会价值评估——以吴淞炮台湾湿地森林公园为例

人类活动对生态系统不同服务的多样化需求日益增长,传统的生态系统服务价值评估实践多以经济学方法为主,较少关注社会属性和空间异质性.本文选取上海市吴淞炮台湾湿地森林公园作为研究对象,采用SolVES模型对其美学、生物多样性、文化、娱乐等服务的社会价值进行量化和空间分析.结果表明: 公园的热点区域集中在草坪乐园、吴淞炮台纪念广场、临江观景台等视野开阔或临近水景观的区域;游客对公园内美学、历史、生物多样性、娱乐、文化、康体健身价值较为偏好;水景观和路网布局影响游客对不同社会价值的偏好程度,美学、生物多样性、娱乐和康体健身价值高低与距水体远近在一定范围内呈显著负相关关系,美学和康体健身价值高低与距道路远近呈显著负相关关系;游憩频率影响游客对生物多样性价值和康体健身价值的感受及偏好;SolVES模型在评估中小尺度生态系统服务社会价值方面具有较好的可行性.     

Regional Scale Prioritisation for Key Ecosystem Services,Renewable Energy Production and Urban Development

Although the importance of addressing ecosystem service benefits in regional land use planning and decision-making is evident, substantial practical challenges remain. In particular, methods to identify priority areas for the provision of key ecosystem services and other environmental services (benefits from the environment not directly linked to the function of ecosystems) need to be developed. Priority areas are locations which provide disproportionally high benefits from one or more service. Here we map a set of ecosystem and environmental services and delineate priority areas according to different scenarios. Each scenario is produced by a set of weightings allocated to different services and corresponds to different landscape management strategies which decision makers could undertake. Using the county of Cornwall, U.K., as a case study, we processed gridded maps of key ecosystem services and environmental services, including renewable energy production and urban development. We explored their spatial distribution patterns and their spatial covariance and spatial stationarity within the region. Finally we applied a complementarity-based priority ranking algorithm (zonation) using different weighting schemes. Our conclusions are that (i) there are two main patterns of service distribution in this region, clustered services (including agriculture, carbon stocks, urban development and plant production) and dispersed services (including cultural services, energy production and floods mitigation); (ii) more than half of the services are spatially correlated and there is high non-stationarity in the spatial covariance between services; and (iii) it is important to consider both ecosystem services and other environmental services in identifying priority areas. Different weighting schemes provoke drastic changes in the delineation of priority areas and therefore decision making processes need to carefully consider the relative values attributed to different services.     

农业文化遗产生态系统服务的复合增益——以浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统为例

农业文化遗产是农村与其所处环境长期协同进化和动态适应下所形成的独特的土地利用系统和农业景观，具备丰富的景观要素。景观要素的耦合会对景观整体的生态系统服务供应产生影响。研究构建了多景观要素的“生态系统服务复合增益”理论框架，并以浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统为例，将其景观要素划分为农田生态系统和水域生态系统，并分别评估其景观要素生态系统服务价值、景观整体生态系统服务价值和生态系统服务复合增益价值。研究结果显示：(1)2019年浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统生态系统服务总价值为187.72亿元，文化服务价值最高，占总价值的91.8%;(2)农田的生态系统服务价值为6.03亿元，占总价值的3.2%,水域的生态系统服务价值为8.15亿元，占总价值的4.3%;(3)生态系统服务复合增益价值为173.54亿元，占总价值的92.5%。研究表明，农田和水域两种景观要素的耦合能提高浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统中食物供应、气体调节、盐碱地改良、休息游憩四种生态系统服务价值，致使其产生生态系统服务复合增益。     

Pollination and other ecosystem services produced by mobile organisms: a conceptual framework for the effects of land-use change

Many ecosystem services are delivered by organisms that depend on habitats that are segregated spatially or temporally from the location where services are provided. Management of mobile organisms contributing to ecosystem services requires consideration not only of the local scale where services are delivered, but also the distribution of resources at the landscape scale, and the foraging ranges and dispersal movements of the mobile agents. We develop a conceptual model for exploring how one such mobile-agent-based ecosystem service (MABES), pollination, is affected by land-use change, and then generalize the model to other MABES. The model includes interactions and feedbacks among policies affecting land use, market forces and the biology of the organisms involved. Animal-mediated pollination contributes to the production of goods of value to humans such as crops; it also bolsters reproduction of wild plants on which other services or service-providing organisms depend. About one-third of crop production depends on animal pollinators, while 60–90% of plant species require an animal pollinator. The sensitivity of mobile organisms to ecological factors that operate across spatial scales makes the services provided by a given community of mobile agents highly contextual. Services vary, depending on the spatial and temporal distribution of resources surrounding the site, and on biotic interactions occurring locally, such as competition among pollinators for resources, and among plants for pollinators. The value of the resulting goods or services may feed back via market-based forces to influence land-use policies, which in turn influence land management practices that alter local habitat conditions and landscape structure. Developing conceptual models for MABES aids in identifying knowledge gaps, determining research priorities, and targeting interventions that can be applied in an adaptive management context.     

景观空间异质性对生态系统服务形成与供给的影响

景观空间异质性与生态系统服务的关系极为密切,适当调整景观空间异质性有助于生态系统服务的持续形成与稳定供给。研究景观空间异质性和生态系统服务形成与供给之间的相互影响作用及响应机制具有重要的理论与现实意义,是保护生物多样性、管理生态系统服务与优化景观空间配置的基础。现有研究大多在不同尺度上探讨了景观格局与生态过程或生态系统服务间的相互影响关系,而缺乏景观格局-生态过程-生态系统服务三者间有效联结等方面的研究。景观空间异质性是怎样直接或间接地作用于生态系统服务形成与供给的,目前还没有一个较为明确的解释。因此,通过分析国内外文献,回顾了景观格局或景观空间异质性与生态系统服务之间关系的研究进展、研究内容和研究方法;从景观组成、景观构型的变化入手,讨论了景观空间异质性对生态系统服务形成与供给的影响及其强度,并认为景观组成异质性变化能够直接影响生态系统服务,而景观构型异质性变化会通过改变生态过程而间接影响生态系统服务;阐述了景观空间异质性在影响生态系统服务形成与供给的同时,也使生态系统服务在空间上产生了异质性分布,并从自然因素和人为因素两个方面对其进行解释;强调了尺度问题在景观空间异质性与生态系统服务研究中的重要性;最后,明确了对生态系统服务形成与供给的景观空间异质性影响研究不仅有助于生态系统服务的维持与调节,也能更深层次地揭示其中的生态学意义。     

Valuing ecosystem services to explore scenarios for adaptive spatial planning

As the ecosystem services concept increasingly gains importance, it needs translation into practical applications. Recent efforts of EU member states to map ES are opening new opportunities to include ES in spatial planning and adaptive land management. For this, spatial planners and policy makers need practical tools that integrate a variety of social and biophysical information in an accessible way. We argue that monetary valuation of ES can contribute to this challenge. A methodological framework was developed to explore adaptive management of bioproductive space. The first stage in the methodology is a spatially explicit evaluation of various ecosystem services for different land uses. In a second stage, bio-physical and socio-economic drivers or shocks are introduced that can influence the value society attributes to specific ecosystem services. The third stage of the methodology takes policy priorities into account. In a final stage, the output of the approach is synthesised by ranking the analysis results for different scenarios and policy priority settings. This methodology allows spatial planners to explore and evaluate policy decisions against trade-offs between various land use alternatives, while taking ecosystem services into account. To demonstrate its use, the methodology is applied to a small-scale case study that combines extensive livestock production with the development of natural values. The application to the case demonstrates that the optimal strategy from a societal perspective, can be highly context-dependent. Besides the potential for supporting policy makers to think about the broader implications of land use changes for community wellbeing, the methodology provides useful feedback for adaptive farm and landscape management. We underline both the potential and possible caveats in using this approach for land use evaluation.     

汶川县生态系统服务对景观格局及其变化的响应

景观格局及其变化是影响生态系统服务供应与维持的主要原因之一,也是生态系统服务管理与景观空间配置优化的基础。基于30 m分辨率土地利用数据,统计汶川县2000—2015年多种景观格局指数和碳固定、水源涵养、土壤保持3种生态系统服务的变化,划分等级探究生态系统服务对景观格局及其变化的响应。研究结果表明:1)汶川县整体景观趋于破碎化、斑块形状复杂化,斑块异质性增加,且主要是在林地、草地和耕地之间转换;2)对于生态系统服务,碳固定在全域内有所减少,而大部分区域水源涵养和土壤保持呈增长趋势;3)不同生态系统服务对景观格局的响应存在差异,不仅表现在指标上,也体现在程度上,如碳固定对斑块形状指数(Landscape Shape Index,LSI)响应较为明显,而对蔓延度指数(Contagion Index,CONTAG)敏感性较差;4)并非所有景观格局变化均会引起生态系统服务变化,尺度也会对结果造成影响。本研究通过生态系统服务对景观格局的响应分析,可为区域景观管理的相关评估提供借鉴。     

生态系统服务多样性与景观多功能性——从科学理念到综合评估

生态系统和景观是构成地球表层系统的基本功能单元。从对人类生存和发展支撑作用以及人类对环境合理利用和保护的角度,逐渐形成了生态系统服务和多功能景观的科学概念,相关的理论和应用研究也很快成为学术热点。但是从国内外主要进展上看,生态系统服务和景观多功能性的定量化研究都还比较薄弱。生态系统与景观具有等级关联性,前者是构成后者的基本要素,生态系统服务和景观功能具有同源性。因此,将生态系统服务与景观多功能性研究紧密结合既有现实基础又能够深化彼此研究的定量化水平,并进一步提出了生态系统服务与景观多功能性综合定量研究的整体性框架。从当前国内外研究文献看,该框架具有可行性,可以作为进一步深化生态系统服务和景观多功能性研究的现实途径。     

Land use efficiency: anticipating future demand for land‐sector greenhouse gas emissions abatement and managing trade‐offs with agriculture,water, and biodiversity

Competition for land is increasing, and policy needs to ensure the efficient supply of multiple ecosystem services from land systems. We modelled the spatially explicit potential future supply of ecosystem services in Australia's intensive agricultural land in response to carbon markets under four global outlooks from 2013 to 2050. We assessed the productive efficiency of greenhouse gas emissions abatement, agricultural production, water resources, and biodiversity services and compared these to production possibility frontiers (PPFs). While interacting commodity markets and carbon markets produced efficient outcomes for agricultural production and emissions abatement, more efficient outcomes were possible for water resources and biodiversity services due to weak price signals. However, when only two objectives were considered as per typical efficiency assessments, efficiency improvements involved significant unintended trade‐offs for the other objectives and incurred substantial opportunity costs. Considering multiple objectives simultaneously enabled the identification of land use arrangements that were efficient over multiple ecosystem services. Efficient land use arrangements could be selected that meet society's preferences for ecosystem service provision from land by adjusting the metric used to combine multiple services. To effectively manage competition for land via land use efficiency, market incentives are needed that effectively price multiple ecosystem services.     

Capacity,pressure, demand,and flow: A conceptual framework for analyzing ecosystem service provision and delivery

Ecosystem services provide an instinctive way to understand the trade-offs associated with natural resource management. However, despite their apparent usefulness, several hurdles have prevented ecosystem services from becoming deeply embedded in environmental decision-making. Ecosystem service studies vary widely in focal services, geographic extent, and in methods for defining and measuring services. Dissent among scientists on basic terminology and approaches to evaluating ecosystem services create difficulties for those trying to incorporate ecosystem services into decision-making. To facilitate clearer comparison among recent studies, we provide a synthesis of common terminology and explain a rationale and framework for distinguishing among the components of ecosystem service delivery, including: an ecosystem's capacity to produce services; ecological pressures that interfere with an ecosystem's ability to provide the service; societal demand for the service; and flow of the service to people. We discuss how interpretation and measurement of these four components can differ among provisioning, regulating, and cultural services. Our flexible framework treats service capacity, ecological pressure, demand, and flow as separate but interactive entities to improve our ability to evaluate the sustainability of service provision and to help guide management decisions. We consider ecosystem service provision to be sustainable when demand is met without decreasing capacity for future provision of that service or causing undesirable declines in other services. When ecosystem service demand exceeds ecosystem capacity to provide services, society can choose to enhance natural capacity, decrease demand and/or ecological pressure, or invest in a technological substitute. Because regulating services are frequently overlooked in environmental assessments, we provide a more detailed examination of regulating services and propose a novel method for quantifying the flow of regulating services based on estimates of ecological work. We anticipate that our synthesis and framework will reduce inconsistency and facilitate coherence across analyses of ecosystem services, thereby increasing their utility in environmental decision-making.     

The importance of considering human well-being to understand social preferences of ecosystem services

Evaluations about social preferences for ecosystem services do not always include human well-being. Using a case study in South-Central Chile, we showed how the human well-being approach might reveal social preferences on ecosystem services. We used a socio-cultural approach to compare social preferences for provisioning, regulating, and cultural services and the links people establish to human well-being. From an online questionnaire, we collected 214 responses, balanced in gender (49/51 % men/women, respectively), diverse in age (18 to 62 years), but with 68 % under 30 years. Water for human consumption and agriculture, food, and native forest products were the most preferred provisioning services (40, 28, and 21 %, respectively). In contrast, products from tree plantations were considered the lowest ones. Pollution control (40 %) and water provision during summer (18 %) were the preferred regulating services, while biodiversity conservation (25 %) and environmental education (22 %) were primarily selected cultural ones. We found a clear preference pattern for provisioning services but not for regulating and cultural services. Even though people linked multiple ES to human well-being, some links’ patterns mirrored preferences for provisioning services but not for regulating and cultural services. However, although cultural services did not show a clear preference pattern, people perceived their importance by linking them to various benefits. Understanding social preferences of ES based on their links with human well-being helps to address their relevance and potential trade-offs for land planning and management decision-making and convert the ES concept into decision-making instruments.     

Local community attitudes towards mangrove forest conservation

Local communities have preferences and expectations regarding mangrove ecosystems that are typically underrepresented in valuation studies. Therefore, this study identifies how the local community of Mahahual (Mexico) perceives the ecosystem services provided by the mangrove forest and how these preferences differ between households. A survey was designed by one of the authors and local stakeholders building on previous knowledge and experts (local environmental research centre and non-governmental organisation Takata and its experts in biology and coastal conservation, ecotourism businesses’ owners, and the mayor of the village). The survey is used to cover a wide range of ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, recreation and cultural activities as well as improved connectivity with local seagrass beds and coral reefs. Ecosystem services were specifically chosen by biologists and ecologists of the local NGO to perfectly reflect the local mangroves ecosystem. The small land area of the village, its low population and its rapid expansion offer a unique context, aiming at preserving the natural environment while keeping in mind that the main economy is based on tourism. While mangroves are greatly appreciated for the local protective services they provide such as coastal protection, local inhabitants also care about services that have a wider impact such as biodiversity and carbon sequestration. We find that the educational background of local inhabitants plays an important role in determining the importance of local ecosystem services and that information provision can help to counterbalance this effect. We also observe that preferences for specific ecosystem services differ based on how close residents live to the mangroves and to the coast, which accentuates the different needs and ideas of the households based on their local neighbourhood.     

贵州草海湿地生态系统服务价值评估

贵州草海是中国三大高原淡水湖泊之一,其湿地生态系统能给人类提供产品和服务,为社会可持续发展提供基础,由于其价值没有被量化,人们对其重要性缺乏直观认识,导致了湿地的不合理开发及利用。根据草海湿地的特征,运用市场价值法、影子工程法、问卷调查法等定量评估了2010年草海湿地生态系统最终服务价值,包括供给服务、调节服务和文化服务。结果表明,草海湿地生态系统服务总价值为4.39×108元,其中供给服务价值为0.74×108元,调节服务价值为1.14×108元,文化服务价值为2.51×108元;所计算的10项服务按其价值大小排序为:休闲娱乐生物多样性与景观资源保护水资源供给调蓄洪水气候调节补给地下水大气组分调节原材料生产水质净化食物生产;单位面积服务价值为16.40×104元/hm2,是2010年贵州省威宁县单位面积GDP产值的16.91倍。从研究结果来看,草海湿地生态系统服务价值较大,为草海湿地的管理及保护提供了一定参考依据。     

Multiple ecosystem services and disservices of the urban forest establishing their connections with landscape structure and sociodemographics

The promotion of sustainable cities is critical under future environmental change and population growth. Cities in the present and future can ensure the provision of ecosystem services to their urban inhabitants. The urban forest is one of the main suppliers of ecosystem services in urban areas, and can provide the base information to quantify ecosystem services and disservices, detecting the areas were low provision of those occur. In this study multiple ecosystem services and disservices were quantified using transferable indicators in order to detect areas for environmental improvement. The set of spatially explicit indicators enables the detection of areas of low and high provision of ecosystem services. The analysis showed synergies existing among regulating, provisioning and supporting services, while trade-offs were found with cultural services and regulating, provisioning and supporting services. Ecosystem services provision was positively related to the amount of vegetation and negatively related to its degree of fragmentation. A high provision of ecosystem services was found in less populated areas, with more educated and affluent people, highlighting the strong relations existing between social vulnerabilities and areas of low provision of services. Results from this research provide insights on the role of policy makers on better distributed supply of ecosystem services and on how the landscape structure can be modified to plan for sustainable cities.