树突状细胞与Toll受体研究新进展

树突状细胞是最强的抗原提呈细胞,在免疫系统中发挥着重要作用。Toll样受体是表达在树突状细胞上的一种PRRs,主要功能是通过识别病原体微生物所携带的病原相关分子模式激活DC,使其分泌各种免疫调节细胞因子,从而启动免疫应答。在肠道免疫中TLR信号的激活为肠道提供保护作用。本文简述了树突状细胞的生物特性、不同亚型。重点阐述了Toll样受体在肠道免疫中的作用及益生菌对肠道Toll样受体表达的影响。     

新生隐球菌的模式识别受体及下游信号传导

新生隐球菌感染机体后,经固有免疫细胞表面的模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs)识别病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns,PAMPs),引发下游的信号传导通路,激活核因子NF-κB,进而启动固有免疫和适应性免疫,诱导相关炎症因子的生成,活化Th1、Th2、Th17等适应性免疫细胞,同时募集巨噬细胞吞噬清除隐球菌。目前对隐球菌模式识别受体的种类及功能仍有待探索,对其下游信号传导通路的研究需深入,充分研究模式识别受体和下游信号传导,将对隐球菌病的免疫调节和临床治疗提供思路。     

流感病毒感染的模式识别及下游相关信号通路

流感病毒(influenza virus)轻症感染可由机体免疫系统清除,但重症感染则诱发肺脏免疫损伤。流感病毒的病原体相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)可被位于细胞膜、细胞器膜及胞质内的重要模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs)介导识别,活化一系列激酶及转录因子,诱导促炎细胞因子和趋化因子的表达、成熟和分泌,进一步激活天然免疫及获得性免疫应答细胞,介导炎症反应和诱导免疫病理损伤。PRRs是研究天然免疫应答启动机制及抑制重症感染诱导免疫病理损伤的重要靶点。现就Toll样受体(toll-like receptors,TLRs)中的TLR3、TLR7/8、TLR4、RIG-I样受体(RIG-I like receptors,RLRs)和NOD样受体(NOD-like receptor,NLR)在流感病毒感染中的识别及下游信号通路在免疫病理损伤中的作用机制作一综述。     

Toll样受体信号转导途径研究进展

Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)属于模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs)家族,识别高度保守的微生物组分-病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pat-terns,PAMPS)。迄今为止,在人类基因组中已发现10个Toll样受体。这些受体通过感知不同的微生物刺激,招募特异接头蛋白,激活一系列信号级联反应,引发针对病原体的特异性免疫应答,是连接天然免疫和适应性免疫应答的桥梁。哺乳动物Toll样受体的发现引领天然免疫的研究进入飞速发展的时代。本文将对Toll样受体信号转导途径的最新进展作一综述,以便更好地理解Toll样受体介导的分子免疫机制,这将有助于研发免疫治疗的分子靶标,最终有效预防、控制Toll样受体介导的疾病。     

鱼类模式识别受体的研究进展

天然免疫（innate immunity）是基于对病原微生物成分的非克隆性识别而启动的快速防御反应。天然免疫系统可通过胚系编码的模式识别受体（pattern-recognition receptors,PRR）识别恒定不变的病原基元,即病原相关分子模式（pathogen-associated molecular patterns,PAMPs）,启动信号级联转导,最终PRRs信号激活宿主免疫和前炎性基因的表达,引发针对所识别病原的免疫反应。目前PRRs主要分为5类,即C-型Lectins、Toll样受体（Toll-like receptors,TLRs）、视黄酸诱导基因I样受体（retinoic acid inducible gene I-like receptors,RLRs）、包含核苷酸结合区和亮氨酸富集区蛋白（the nucleotide-binding domain,leucine-rich repeatcontaining proteins,NLRs,也称NOD样受体）和最近发现的AIM样受体（absent in melanoma（AIM）-like receptors,ALRs）。近年来,随着5种鱼类基因组序列草图的完成,大量鱼类PRRs基因被发现,一些PRRs的配体特异性及其相关信号途径正在逐渐明晰。为此,将对鱼类Toll样受体（TLRs）、视黄酸诱导基因I样受体（RLRs）和NOD样受体（NLRs）的研究进展进行综述。     

黏膜上皮细胞:病毒侵染与机体免疫的初始交汇处

黏膜上皮细胞构成了包括呼吸道、消化道、泌尿生殖道在内的一个广阔的黏膜界面。黏膜上皮细胞、免疫细胞、免疫分子共同组成黏膜相关淋巴组织,构成了一个完整的黏膜免疫防御系统。黏膜上皮细胞通常是病毒感染的初始靶细胞。大多数DNA和RNA病毒都能直接感染黏膜上皮细胞。黏膜上皮细胞在病毒复制过程中可通过各种模式识别受体感应病毒的病原相关分子模式,从而识别病毒,并启动抗病毒固有免疫应答。近10年来,巨噬细胞炎症小体和caspase-1信号通路激活及其相应的抗感染效应成为固有免疫研究一个热点。病原相关分子模式被巨噬细胞识别,启动形成不同类型的炎症小体,激活caspase-1信号通路,诱导炎性细胞因子IL-1β和IL-18产生,造成细胞焦亡。对巨噬细胞炎症小体的研究,加深了人们对固有免疫的理解,促进了免疫识别、免疫信号转导、免疫应答、免疫调节、免疫病理等各个方面的研究。与固有免疫细胞一样,黏膜上皮细胞具有自身特征性的模式识别受体表达和分布。黏膜上皮细胞通过模式识别受体识别病毒病原相关分子模式,并激活NF-κB信号通路,产生炎性细胞因子、I型和III型干扰素,实现快速的炎性应答和发挥抗病毒作用。黏膜上皮细胞的这种快速应答释放出的各类细胞因子共同招募、激活和协调固有免疫细胞发挥固有免疫应答,并进一步调节、诱导特异性免疫细胞产生特异性抗体和T细胞应答。可见,黏膜上皮细胞是病毒侵染与机体免疫的一个最初的重要交汇处。在这个初始交汇处,黏膜上皮细胞不仅对局部黏膜免疫应答起作用,而且对系统免疫应答起着决定性调节作用。然而,黏膜上皮细胞对病原相关分子模式的识别以及相关炎症通路的激活尚处于启蒙时期。黏膜上皮细胞与炎症小体的关系值得进一步研究。新发现的III型干扰素及其在黏膜上皮细胞的独特表达分布,以及其在固有免疫应答中的抗病毒功能近年逐渐得到关注,详细机制需深入研究。此外,黏膜上皮细胞还是黏膜免疫应答特异效应因子Ig A抗体分泌和发挥功能的平台。Ig A特异性抗病毒功能,尤其是Ig A独特的上皮细胞内中和病毒复制的功能机制值得进一步探讨。现将概述病毒入侵黏膜上皮细胞并起始病毒复制过程,以及黏膜上皮细胞识别病毒感染启动固有免疫应答,调节特异免疫应答的研究进展,并探讨部分研究的交叉前沿。     

TLR介导的信号通路在肝纤维化中的作用

Toll样受体(Toll - like receptor,TLR)是在天然免疫与获得性免疫应答中发挥重要作用的模式识别受体(Pattern recognition receptors,PRRs).TLR识别来源于病原体或机体损伤产生的“危险信号”,介导多种炎症因子释放,激发机体对病原体的免疫反应,启动固有免疫并进一步活...     

固有免疫系统识别白念珠菌的分子机制研究进展

白念珠菌是引起机体浅部和深部真菌感染的主要致病菌。机体通过固有免疫细胞表面的模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs),与白念珠菌细胞壁表面的病原相关模式分子(pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)结合,激活机体固有免疫应答。机体和白念珠菌的相互作用可以有效抵抗白念珠菌侵袭,清除白念珠菌感染,但当机体免疫力低下时,白念珠菌会持续引发感染,引起慢性黏膜念珠菌病,严重时可以引发系统性白念珠菌感染危及生命。部分模式识别受体如Dectin-1还通过影响Th17细胞的分化,对白念珠菌的适应性免疫应答发挥一定的作用。该文将对已发现的能够识别白念珠菌的模式识别受体,以及这些受体在机体抗白念珠菌感染中的作用进行讨论。     

模式识别受体在白念珠菌感染中的作用

白念珠菌感染机体后,机体首先通过固有免疫系统来发挥抗真菌作用,模式识别受体是固有免疫细胞用于识别PAMPs的分子,其中Toll样受体和C型凝集素家族是识别白念珠菌的主要PRR。这两类受体被激活后,会通过信号通路启动机体固有免疫和适应性免疫系统,诱导相关细胞因子的产生,募集巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞等吞噬细胞来杀灭白念珠菌,同时,还可传递相关信号诱导Th1、Th2、Th17和Treg等适应性免疫细胞的活化,通过体液免疫和细胞免疫来发挥抗真菌作用,对模式识别受体与白念珠菌相互作用机制的研究对临床真菌病的免疫调节和治疗具有重要意义。     

TANK结合激酶1在固有免疫应答中的作用及其泛素化调控

固有免疫系统通过模式识别受体识别病原微生物表面的病原相关分子模式启动固有免疫反应,经级联信号转导,激活下游转录因子NF-κB和干扰素调节因子IRFs,进而产生炎性细胞因子以及Ⅰ型干扰素,抵抗病原微生物感染。TANK结合激酶1 (TANK binding kinase 1,TBK1) 作为一个中心节点蛋白,参与多条固有免疫信号通路的传导,可同时激活NF-κB和IRFs,是机体抗感染过程中关键的蛋白激酶。TBK1的精准调控对维持机体免疫稳态、抵抗病原体入侵至关重要。文中综述了TBK1在固有免疫应答中的作用及其泛素化调控机制,以期为病原体感染及自身免疫病的临床治疗提供理论基础。     

Innate immunity: structure and function of TLRs

The innate immune system provides the first line of defence against infection. Through a limited number of germline-encoded receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), innate cells recognize and are activated by highly conserved structures expressed by large group of microorganisms called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). PRRs are involved either in recognition (scavenger receptors, C-type lectins) or in cell activation (Toll-like receptors or TLR, helicases and NOD molecules). TLRs play a pivotal role in cell activation in response to PAMPs. TLR are type I transmembrane proteins characterized by an intracellular Toll/IL 1 receptor homology domain that are expressed by innate immune cells (dendritic cells, macrophages, NK cells), cells of the adaptive immunity (T and B lymphocytes) and non immune cells (epithelial and endothelial cells, fibroblasts). In all the cell types analyzed, TLR agonists, alone or in combination with costimulatory molecules, induce cell activation. The crucial role played by TLR in immune cell activation has been detailed in dendritic cells. A TLR-dependent activation of dendritic cells is required to induce their maturation and migration to regional lymph nodes and to activate na?ve T cells. The ability of different cell types to respond to TLR agonists is related to the pattern of expression of the TLRs and its regulation as well as their intracellular localization. Recent studies suggest that the nature of the endocytic and signaling receptors engaged by PAMPs may determine the nature of the immune response generated against the microbial molecules, highlighting the role of TLRs as molecular interfaces between innate and adaptive immunity. In this review are summarized the main biological properties of the TLR molecules.     

PRRs in pathogen recognition

The innate immune system provides the first line of host defense against invading microorganisms before the development of adaptive immune responses. Innate immune responses are initiated by germline-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize specific structures of microorganisms. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern-recognition receptors that sense a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. TLRs exist either on the cell surface or in the lysosome/endosome compartment and induce innate immune responses. Recently, cytoplasmic PRRs have been identified which detect pathogens that have invaded the cytosol. This review focuses on the pathogen recognition of PRRs in innate immunity.     

Innate recognition of microbial-derived signals in immunity and inflammation

Microbes generate a vast array of different types of conserved structural components called pathogen-associated molecular patterns(PAMPs),which canbe recognized by cells of the innate immune system.This recognition of "nonself" signatures occurs through host pattern recognition receptors(PRRs),suggesting that microbial-derived signals are good targets for innate immunity to discriminate between self- and nonself.Such PAMP-PRR interactions trigger multiple but distinct downstream signaling cascades,subsequently leading to production of proinflammatory cytokines and interferons that tailor immune responses to particular microbes.Aberrant PRR signals have been associated with various inflammatory diseases and fine regulation of PRR signaling is essential for avoiding excessive inflammatory immune responses and maintaining immune homeostasis.In this review we summarize the ligands and signal transduction pathways of PRRs and highlight recent progress of the mechanisms involved in microbe-specific innate immune recognition during immune responses and inflammation,which may provide new targets for therapeutic intervention to the inflammatory disorders.     

Pattern recognition receptors acting in innate immune system of shrimp against pathogen infections

Invertebrates, including shrimp, have developed very complicated innate immune system against pathogens. Much work has been performed on the innate immunity of shrimp, including immune recognition, signal transduction, effector molecules and antiviral responses due to its great economic value. Pattern recognition is the first step of innate immunity. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) sense the presence of infection and activate immune responses. The studies on shrimp PRRs revealed the recognition mechanism of shrimp at a certain degree. To date, 11 types of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) have been identified in shrimp, namely, β-1,3-glucanase-related proteins, β-1,3-glucan-binding proteins, C-type lectins, scavenger receptors, galectins, fibrinogen-related proteins, thioester-containing protein, Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule, serine protease homologs, trans-activation response RNA-binding protein and Toll like receptors. A number of PRRs have been functionally studied and have been found to have different binding specificities and immune functions. The present review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the PRRs of shrimp.     

Biased perspectives on formyl peptide receptors

The innate immune system is the first line of defense against pathogenic threats. For the early pathogen recognition and activation of cell protective mechanisms, germline-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) detect characteristic and evolutionary conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). PRRs are therefore key elements in the innate immune response; in addition, they sense danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are released by host cell molecules under pathophysiological conditions. Formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) are G-protein-coupled PRRs that respond to a surprisingly broad range of ligands, derived from both pathogens and host cells. Here, we exemplary discuss ligands in order to illustrate the wide pathophysiological relevance of the FPR signaling axis in case of e.g., chronic inflammations and to underscore its potential therapeutic value in the light of “biased agonism”, a modern concept of GPCR (G-protein coupled receptors) activation. These novel insights into the GPCR receptor biochemistry will hopefully (re)stimulate FPR-related research and lead to novel strategies for the urgently needed development of drugs with pharmacologically advantageous characteristics.     

Toll样受体识别机制及其生物学意义

Toll样受体介导的信号转导通路在对抗外来病原体的天然免疫应答中起重要作用。Toll样受体是一个天然模板识别受体家族,能识别固有性模板(微生物和哺乳动物所共有的病原相联的分子模板PAMPs)。Toll样受体通过巨噬细胞和其他免疫细胞来识别,其中TLR4识别内毒素、TLR2识别肽聚糖、TLR9识别细菌DNA、TLR5识别鞭毛蛋白、TLR3识别双链RNA等。本探讨了多种Toll受体家族成员在动物体内识别机理及功能,概述了其应用研究进展。     

Pattern recognition receptors—Molecular orchestrators of inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are a family of germline encoded receptors responsible for the detection of “pathogen associated molecular patterns” (PAMPs) or host derived “damage associated molecular patterns” (DAMPs) which induce innate immune signalling to generate a pro-inflammatory profile within the host. Four main classes of PRRs are recognised, Toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), RIG-like receptors (RLRs) and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs). Abnormal activation of PRRs has been implicated in various autoimmune and inflammatory conditions including rheumatoid arthritis and asthma. Recent growing evidence has implicated these PRRs as contributory elements to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colitis-associated cancer (CAC). Here, the current literature which implicates PRRs in IBD and CAC is comprehensively reviewed.     

Synthesis and immunostimulatory activity of sugar-conjugated TLR7 ligands

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a type of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are activated by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The activation of TLRs initiates innate immune responses and subsequently leads to adaptive immune responses. TLR agonists are effective immuomodulators in vaccine adjuvants for infectious diseases and cancer immunotherapy. In exploring hydrophilic small molecules of TLR7 ligands using the cell-targeted property of a vaccine adjuvant, we conjugated 1V209, a small TLR7 ligand molecule, with various low or middle molecular weight sugar molecules that work as carriers. The sugar-conjugated 1V209 derivatives showed increased water solubility and higher immunostimulatory activity in both mouse and human cells compared to unmodified 1V209. The improved immunostimulatory potency of sugar-conjugates was attenuated by an inhibitor of endocytic process, cytochalasin D, suggesting that conjugation of sugar moieties may enhance the uptake of TLR7 ligand into the endosomal compartment. Collectively our results support that sugar-conjugated TLR7 ligands are applicable to novel drugs for cancer and vaccine therapy.     

Engineering plant resistance by constructing chimeric receptors that recognize damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)

An efficient sensing of danger and a rapid activation of the immune system are crucial for the survival of plants. Conserved pathogen/microbe-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs/MAMPs) and endogenous molecular patterns, which are present only when the tissue is infected or damaged (damage-associated molecular patterns or DAMPs), can act as danger signals and activate the plant immune response. These molecules are recognized by surface receptors that are indicated as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). In this paper we summarize recent information on oligogalacturonides (OGs), a class of DAMPs that is released from the extracellular matrix of the plant cell during pathogen attack or wounding. We also describe the characteristics of the Arabidopsis Wall-Associated Kinase 1 (WAK1), a PRR recently identified as a receptor of OGs and discuss the use of WAK1, PRRs and chimeric receptors to engineer resistance in crop plants.     

New immunology—immunology of pattern recognition receptors

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) have been found on all cells of the body—cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems, epithelial and endothelial cells, keratinocytes, etc. PRRs can recognize specific molecular structures of microorganisms as well as allergens and other substances. The interaction with ligands of foreign microorganisms activates PRRs, after which host cells start to produce cytokines both to specifically activate innate immunity and to control adaptive immune reactions. On the othe hand, no immune response develops against microorganisms of the normal microflora. Practically, the development of all immune responses is controlled by PRRs. These responses start in epithelial cells, skin cells, and vascular epithelial cells, which meet alien first. The immune system uses these cells to control the composition of normal microflora. Accordingly, the definition of immune system functions should be complemented by the regulation of body’s microflora in addition to the protection from alien and altered self.