聚腺苷二磷酸核糖基聚合酶──在DNA损伤修复及程序性死亡中的作用

聚腺苷二磷酸核糖基聚合酶(poly (ADP-ribose) polyerase, PARP)是存在于多数真核细胞中的一个蛋白质翻译后修饰酶,它可催化组蛋白H₁等重要核蛋白及它自身的聚腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用.细胞受到外界损伤因子作用时, DNA发生链断裂,PARP结合到DNA断裂口,其催化活性被激活,修饰受体蛋白,进而引发一系列级联反应.这种性质使PARP有可能作为细胞内的分子感受器和传感器,启动细胞内对损伤作出反应的信号传导机制,从而根据细胞受损程度决定细胞的命运：修复或是死亡．     

腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用及其机制

腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用及其机制杨其伟,陈德风（南开大学分子生物学研究所,天津３０００７１）关键词腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用腺苷二磷酸（ＡＤＰ）核糖基化作用是以ＮＡＤ作为修饰基团的供体,将ＡＤＰ核糖共价连接到受体蛋白上去的一种转译后的修饰过程。自从６０年代...     

拟南芥多聚ADP核糖水解酶在ATM和ATR依赖的DNA损伤信号途径中的作用分析

DNA损伤响应是生物体感知DNA断裂并启动DNA修复过程的重要机制,对维护遗传物质的稳定性具有重要的意义.DNA损伤响应机制中有多种蛋白的参与.多聚ADP核糖水解酶(PARG)是参与蛋白质多聚ADP核糖化(poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation)修饰调控过程的一种重要酶,它通过水解去除蛋白质上的多聚ADP核糖来调节靶蛋白质的生理生化活性.目前已知多聚ADP核糖修饰相关蛋白可能通过修饰DNA修复相关蛋白参与DNA损伤反应,但其影响的信号途径和上下游关系并不清楚.本研究通过双突变体构建、遗传以及表达谱分析,揭示了PARG1可能在DNA损伤响应途径关键激酶ATM和ATR的上游,通过调节ATM和ATR的活性来反馈调节DNA损伤信号途径.     

蛋白质多聚SUMO化修饰及其功能

泛素（ubiquitin, Ub）是一类高度保守的小蛋白, 可与靶蛋白的赖氨酸残基共价连接, 形成多聚泛素链行使功能. 类似于泛素化修饰过程, 小泛素相关修饰物(small ubiquitin related modifier, SUMO）也可以共价修饰靶蛋白的赖氨酸残基, 从而影响靶蛋白的定位、稳定性以及蛋白间的相互作用, 发挥重要的生理功能. 尽管在多数情况下, 靶蛋白发生的是单SUMO化修饰, 但最近研究发现,SUMO依赖自身的赖氨酸也可以形成多聚链. 与单SUMO化修饰不同的是, 多聚SUMO化修饰的靶蛋白可以进一步被泛素化修饰, 进而诱导靶蛋白的降解. 这是一种新的、特殊的化学修饰形式, 弄清它的生理功能,对于了解细胞的生长、分化以及凋亡等生理过程将具有重要的意义. 本文将就此方面的最新研究进展做一综述.     

聚焦中国

发现乙酰化作用新机制 乙酰化修饰是蛋白质最主要的修饰方式之一,修饰后的蛋白质可以对细胞内的各类通路进行精确调节与控制。一般认为,乙酰化修饰主要集中在对细胞染色体结构的影响以及对核内转录调控因子的激活方面,但是复旦大学科研人员研究发现,在生理状况下存在着大量非细胞核的蛋白被乙酰化修饰;     

聚焦中国

发现乙酰化作用新机制 乙酰化修饰是蛋白质最主要的修饰方式之一,修饰后的蛋白质可以对细胞内的各类通路进行精确调节与控制。一般认为,乙酰化修饰主要集中在对细胞染色体结构的影响以及对核内转录调控因子的激活方面,但是复旦大学科研人员研究发现,在生理状况下存在着大量非细胞核的蛋白被乙酰化修饰;     

核糖糖基化BSA单体对SH-SY5Y细胞的毒性明显

研究显示,蛋白质异常修饰形成的寡聚体,与其多聚体、淀粉样纤维相比,具有更强的细胞毒性．这一发现被认为是蛋白质错误折叠和聚集研究领域中的重要进展．蛋白质的异常修饰如还原糖的非酶糖基化,是糖尿病最基本的病理特征．2型糖尿病患者尿液中的核糖浓度显著升高,表明糖尿病不仅与葡萄糖代谢紊乱相关,同时也与核糖代谢失调相关．以牛血清白蛋白(BSA)为研究对象,通过荧光分光光度计检测、原子力显微镜、透射电子显微镜观察以及分子排阻色谱分离,观察到核糖糖基化能够诱导BSA聚集,从单体、寡聚体逐渐形成多聚体．通过CCK-8 Kit、乳酸脱氢酶细胞活性检测、TUNEL染色、caspase-3活性检测以及流式细胞检测等方法,发现核糖糖基化的BSA单体对SH-SY5Y细胞(人神经母细胞瘤细胞系)具有明显的毒性,与此同时,糖化寡聚体和多聚体没有表现出显著的毒性．进一步研究发现,核糖糖基化的BSA单体通过与AGEs的受体RAGE相互作用,激活细胞内的MAPK通路,从而导致细胞凋亡．     

聚腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用与真核生物的基因表达与调控

聚腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用与许多重要生命活动相关,本文着重介绍其在基因表达与调控中可能发挥的作用。聚腺苷二磷酸核糖基化作用可能通过调节染色质结构与功能或通过对RNA聚合酶及HMG、A24蛋白等的修饰作用来调节转录活动,并对转录物的加工也有一定影响;此外,该作用还与某些激素诱导的特异性基因表达有关,并且可能参与了增强子序列对基因表达的调节过程。     

植物核糖基化因子ARF1的功能研究进展

二磷酸腺苷-核糖基化因子1(ADP-ribosylation factor1,ARF1)是二磷酸腺苷-核糖基化因子(ADP-ribosylation factors,ARFs)家族的一员,ARFs是GTP结合蛋白Ras超家族的一个亚家族,ARF家族在结构上非常保守,广泛存在于酵母以及植物和动物中。研究发现ARF1在植物生长过程中有着重要的作用,如参与囊泡运输,活化磷脂酶D,一些细胞器的维持,抗病毒等方面有着重要作用,是细胞内重要的信号分子。本研究主要介绍ARF1在植物中的进展。     

非免疫球蛋白配体药物应用进展

同抗体药物相比,非免疫球蛋白配体药物(Non-immunoglobulin scaffolds,非免蛋白配体药物)具有分子量小,不需要翻译后修饰,通常缺乏二硫键,并可进行直接的多聚化修饰等优点。最近几年,研发的非免蛋白配体药物种类就达到了二十余种,如Adhirons,Alphabodies,Centyrins,Pronectins,Repebodies,Affimers,和Obodies等,其中的139个非免疫球蛋白配体,可以特异靶向结合102种蛋白。这些非免疫球蛋白配体多用于癌症和炎症性疾病的治疗和诊断,其中有10多种非免疫球蛋白配体已经进入临床试验研究。最近,非免蛋白配体也被用于伴侣蛋白作结构解析研究,翻译后修饰的细胞内监控,或作为显微镜,流式细胞仪,Western印迹法等检测方法中抗体的替代品。     

Interaction of PARP-2 with DNA structures mimicking DNA repair intermediates and consequences on activity of base excision repair proteins

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a posttranslational protein modification significant for genomic stability and cell survival in response to DNA damage. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is catalyzed by poly(ADP-ribose)polymerases (PARPs). Among the 17 members of the PARP family, PARP-1 and PARP-2 are described as enzymes whose catalytic activity is stimulated by some types of DNA damages.     

New insights into the molecular and cellular functions of poly(ADP-ribose) and PARPs

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) are enzymes that transfer ADP-ribose groups to target proteins and thereby affect various nuclear and cytoplasmic processes. The activity of PARP family members, such as PARP1 and PARP2, is tied to cellular signalling pathways, and through poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) they ultimately promote changes in gene expression, RNA and protein abundance, and the location and activity of proteins that mediate signalling responses. PARPs act in a complex response network that is driven by the cellular, molecular and chemical biology of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR). This PAR-dependent response network is crucial for a broad array of physiological and pathological responses and thus is a good target for chemical therapeutics for several diseases.     

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in mammalian ageing

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) catalyze the post-translational modification of proteins with poly(ADP-ribose). Two PARP isoforms, PARP-1 and PARP-2, display catalytic activity by contact with DNA-strand breaks and are involved in DNA base-excision repair and other repair pathways. A body of correlative data suggests a link between DNA damage-induced poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation and mammalian longevity. Recent research on PARPs and poly(ADP-ribose) yielded several candidate mechanisms through which poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation might act as a factor that limits the rate of ageing.     

Distribution of protein poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation systems across all domains of life

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a post-translational modification of proteins involved in regulation of many cellular pathways. Poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) consists of chains of repeating ADP-ribose nucleotide units and is synthesized by the family of enzymes called poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). This modification can be removed by the hydrolytic action of poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) and ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3). Hydrolytic activity of macrodomain proteins (MacroD1, MacroD2 and TARG1) is responsible for the removal of terminal ADP-ribose unit and for complete reversion of protein ADP-ribosylation.Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is widely utilized in eukaryotes and PARPs are present in representatives from all six major eukaryotic supergroups, with only a small number of eukaryotic species that do not possess PARP genes. The last common ancestor of all eukaryotes possessed at least five types of PARP proteins that include both mono and poly(ADP-ribosyl) transferases. Distribution of PARGs strictly follows the distribution of PARP proteins in eukaryotic species. At least one of the macrodomain proteins that hydrolyse terminal ADP-ribose is also always present. Therefore, we can presume that the last common ancestor of all eukaryotes possessed a fully functional and reversible PAR metabolism and that PAR signalling provided the conditions essential for survival of the ancestral eukaryote in its ancient environment.PARP proteins are far less prevalent in bacteria and were probably gained through horizontal gene transfer. Only eleven bacterial species possess all proteins essential for a functional PAR metabolism, although it is not known whether PAR metabolism is truly functional in bacteria. Several dsDNA viruses also possess PARP homologues, while no PARP proteins have been identified in any archaeal genome.Our analysis of the distribution of enzymes involved in PAR metabolism provides insight into the evolution of these important signalling systems, as well as providing the basis for selection of the appropriate genetic model organisms to study the physiology of the specific human PARP proteins.     

PARP2 Is the Predominant Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase in Arabidopsis DNA Damage and Immune Responses

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) catalyze the transfer of multiple poly(ADP-ribose) units onto target proteins. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation plays a crucial role in a variety of cellular processes including, most prominently, auto-activation of PARP at sites of DNA breaks to activate DNA repair processes. In humans, PARP1 (the founding and most characterized member of the PARP family) accounts for more than 90% of overall cellular PARP activity in response to DNA damage. We have found that, in contrast with animals, in Arabidopsis thaliana PARP2 (At4g02390), rather than PARP1 (At2g31320), makes the greatest contribution to PARP activity and organismal viability in response to genotoxic stresses caused by bleomycin, mitomycin C or gamma-radiation. Plant PARP2 proteins carry SAP DNA binding motifs rather than the zinc finger domains common in plant and animal PARP1 proteins. PARP2 also makes stronger contributions than PARP1 to plant immune responses including restriction of pathogenic Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato growth and reduction of infection-associated DNA double-strand break abundance. For poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) enzymes, we find that Arabidopsis PARG1 and not PARG2 is the major contributor to poly(ADP-ribose) removal from acceptor proteins. The activity or abundance of PARP2 is influenced by PARP1 and PARG1. PARP2 and PARP1 physically interact with each other, and with PARG1 and PARG2, suggesting relatively direct regulatory interactions among these mediators of the balance of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. As with plant PARP2, plant PARG proteins are also structurally distinct from their animal counterparts. Hence core aspects of plant poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation are mediated by substantially different enzymes than in animals, suggesting the likelihood of substantial differences in regulation.     

The world according to PARP

An immediate cellular response to DNA damage is the synthesis of poly(ADP-ribose) by the enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). This nuclear enzyme and the unique post-translational modification it catalyzes have long been considered to function exclusively in cellular surveillance of genotoxic stress. The recent identification of multiple members of a PARP family might force a revision of this concept. The novel primary structures and subcellular localizations for some of these PARPs suggests new and unexpected roles for poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in telomere replication and cellular transport.     

Poly(ADP-Ribose) polymerase 1 as a key regulator of DNA repair

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) of proteins is one of the immediate cell responses to DNA damage and is catalyzed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). When bound to damaged DNA, some members of the PARP family are activated and use NAD⁺ as a source of ADP to catalyze synthesis of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) covalently attached to a target protein. PAR synthesis is considered as a mechanism that provides a local signal of DNA damage and modulates protein functions in response to genotoxic agents. PARP1 is the best-studied protein of the PARP family and is widely known аs a regulator of repair of damaged bases and single-strand nicks. Data are accumulating that PARP1 is additionally involved in double-strand break repair and nucleotide excision repair. The review summarizes the literature data on the role that PARP1 and PARylation play in DNA repair and particularly in base excision repair; original data obtained in our lab are considered in more detail.     

Poly(ADP-ribose): PARadigms and PARadoxes

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) is a posttranslational protein modification (PTM) catalyzed by members of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) enzyme family. PARPs use NAD⁺ as substrate and upon cleaving off nicotinamide they transfer the ADP-ribosyl moiety covalently to suitable acceptor proteins and elongate the chain by adding further ADP-ribose units to create a branched polymer, termed poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR), which is rapidly degraded by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) and ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3). In recent years several key discoveries changed the way we look at the biological roles and mode of operation of PARylation. These paradigm shifts include but are not limited to (1) a single PARP enzyme expanding to a PARP family; (2) DNA-break dependent activation extended to several other DNA dependent and independent PARP-activation mechanisms; (3) one molecular mechanism (covalent PARylation of target proteins) underlying the biological effect of PARPs is now complemented by several other mechanisms such as protein–protein interactions, PAR signaling, modulation of NAD⁺ pools and (4) one principal biological role in DNA damage sensing expanded to numerous, diverse biological functions identifying PARP-1 as a real moonlighting protein. Here we review the most important paradigm shifts in PARylation research and also highlight some of the many controversial issues (or paradoxes) of the field such as (1) the mostly synergistic and not antagonistic biological effects of PARP-1 and PARG; (2) mitochondrial PARylation and PAR decomposition, (3) the cross-talk between PARylation and signaling pathways (protein kinases, phosphatases, calcium) and the (4) divergent roles of PARP/PARylation in longevity and in age-related diseases.     

The emerging role of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 in longevity

In the present paper, the involvement of the family of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs), and especially of PARP-1, in mammalian longevity is reviewed. PARPs catalyse poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, a covalent post-translational protein modification in eukaryotic cells. PARP-1 and PARP-2 are activated by DNA strand breaks, play a role in DNA base-excision repair (BER) and are survival factors for cells exposed to low doses of ionising radiation or alkylating agents. PARP-1 is the main catalyst of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in living cells under conditions of DNA breakage, accounting for about 90% of cellular poly(ADP-ribose). DNA-damage-induced poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation also functions as a negative regulator of DNA damage-induced genomic instability. Cellular poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation capacity in permeabilised mononuclear blood cells (MNC) is positively correlated with life span of mammalian species. Furthermore PARP-1 physically interacts with WRN, the protein deficient in Werner syndrome, a human progeroid disorder, and PARP-1 and WRN functionally cooperate in preventing carcinogenesis in vivo. Some of the other members of the PARP family have also been revealed as important regulators of cellular functions relating to ageing/longevity. In particular, tankyrase-1, tankyrase-2, PARP-2 as well as PARP-1 have been found in association with telomeric DNA and are able to poly(ADP-ribosyl)ate the telomere-binding proteins TRF-1 and TRF-2, thus blocking their DNA-binding activity and controlling telomere extension by telomerase.