关于家鸽单眼条件反射的研究

本工作采用食物性运动条件反射的方法和将 GABA 直接注于大脑皮层表面的方法,对家鸽的单眼条件反射进行了研究。获得以下结果:(1)在家鸽单眼和双眼条件反射的建立速度没有显著差别。条件刺激与非条件刺激结合8—15次后出现条件反射,结合30—40次后条件反射趋向巩固。(2)在条件反射巩固初期,即条件刺激与非条件刺激结合约70次时,由光刺激一眼所建立的食物性条件反射能向另侧眼传递,唯刺激另侧眼所引起的反应较弱,潜伏期较长;在条件反射巩固后期,即条件刺激与非条件刺激结合约400次时,这种传递现象即不复存在。(3)将0.4%的 GABA 0.03毫升注于左侧大脑皮层表面,可引起右眼对光刺激的条件反射的抑制;而将同样剂量的 GABA 注于右侧大脑皮层时,并不引起该条件反射的显著变化。对节拍器声的条件反射,在大多数动物均未受影响,只在少数动物有减弱现象。在实验过程中以注射等容量的生理盐水作为对照,未曾发现条件反射的任何变化。根据上述实验结果可以认为,在家鸽由光刺激一侧眼所建立的条件反射有逐渐集中于一侧的趋势,条件反射在两眼间的传递现象随结合次数的增加而不出现。注射 GABA的实验结果说明,在家鸽单眼对光刺激的条件反射主要与对侧大脑半球有关,同时也指出了鸟类大脑皮层在实现条件反射活动中的可能意义。     

兔海马乙酰胆碱敏感神经元在瞬膜条件反射不同阶段中的作用

本工作应用经典瞬膜条件反射和电生理学的方法,研究海马中的胆碱能传递在学习和记忆过程中的作用。实验在11只新西兰白兔上进行。音调和气流刺激角膜的结合训练过程中,在海马背部记录到和瞬膜条件反射的发展平行,并先于条件反射行为的神经元放电增加。在条件反射形成初期阶段,侧脑室注射胆碱受体阻断剂——QNB 后,海马的学习相关性电活动受到阻抑,瞬膜条件反射消失,但非条件瞬膜反射仍然存在。条件反射巩固后,QNB 仍然使海马的学习相关性电活动受到阻抑,但瞬膜条件反射不受影响。实验证明,在瞬膜条件反射形成过程中起主导作用的海马神经元是对乙酰胆碱敏感的神经元,但在条件反射巩固以后,海马以下水平的脑结构发展了在这种简单学习模式中的功能自主性。     

慢性动脉血压监测模型在惊恐条件反射中的应用

目的：探索一种新的、可靠的模型,用于惊恐条件反射的相关研究。方法：通过使用条件刺激(声音)和非条件刺激(足部电击)相结合的方法,可使动物对条件刺激产生惊恐反应。同时对动脉血压进行长期监测并测定利多卡因阻断杏仁基底外侧核群前后的血压变化。结果：该惊恐条件反射建立后(需经4d训练),单独给予动物条件刺激即可引起血压明显升高。我们将它作为条件反射已形成的标志。此时,用利多卡因阻断杏仁基底外侧核群的作用,单独给予动物条件刺激不再引起血压明显升高。结论：慢性动脉血压监测模型在惊恐条件反射的研究中是一种可靠的动物模型。     

2003年国际生物奥赛理论试题A(续)

行为学A 35.在什么条件下,巴甫洛夫的条件反射会最优化:A.无条件刺激的条件刺激之前;无条件刺激比条件刺激强B.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;无条件刺激比条件刺激弱C.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;条件刺激比无条件刺激强D.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;条件刺激比无条件刺激弱     

条件反射形成过程中猴大脑皮层电活动变化的一些观察

实驗在5只成年中国产猕猴(Macaca Mulatta)身上进行。利用在条件反射实驗前不足以引起皮层誘发电位的弱閃光刺激,結合以前肢皮肤电刺激建立条件反射。实驗証明,在条件反射形成的初期和消退过程中,同样強度的弱閃光刺激能在大脑皮层枕叶和頂叶引起明显誘发电位,它的出現早于前肢的条件运动反应。在条件反射巩固之后,弱閃光不再明显地引起誘发电位,而在条件刺激时只有皮层自发电位的去同步化出現,或者甚至不出現大脑皮层电活动的显著变化。     

用条件性逃避反应建立简易的大鼠耳鸣检测方法

目的：用较简单的行为实验建立检测动物耳鸣的方法。方法：按照巴甫洛夫条件反射原理,参照Jastreboff的方法,建立“中断背景声音-大鼠逃跑”的条件反射;不再给电击,观察不同组别大鼠条件反射消退过程的行为表现,用公认的水杨酸耳鸣造模法来验证本方法的可靠性。结果：水杨酸组动物停止背景声音时不出现或较少出现逃跑反应,因为大鼠耳内仍有声音存在(耳鸣声),即条件刺激时有耳鸣的动物出现的逃跑反应次数小于无耳鸣的对照动物。结论：本实验设计可检测动物是否有耳鸣。     

电刺激大鼠坐骨神经诱发海马齿状回突触可塑性研究

观察电刺激大鼠坐骨神经引起海马齿状回诱发场电位的变化,探讨外周传入信息在海马的可塑性以及海马在痛觉调制中的作用。共记录了28只大鼠海马齿状回诱发场电位,平均幅度(23.73±1.12)μV,潜伏期(198.46±5.91)ms。不同条件刺激引起的反应包括:高频条件刺激使海马齿状回诱发场电位幅度降低;低频条件刺激使海马齿状回诱发场电位幅度增大。结果提示,电刺激坐骨神经可在海马齿状回记录到诱发场电位,不同的条件刺激可引起诱发场电位的不同变化,表现为突触传递效能增强或降低,海马对外周传入信息及痛觉起一定的调制作用。     

小脑皮层在兔瞬膜条件反射过程中的调制作用

以音调结合气流刺激兔角膜的训练建立瞬膜条件反射,在条件反射率刚达90%,连续出现三组的学习初始阶段,电解损毁小脑半球第六小叶皮层使 D-I 核的学习相关性电活动和瞬膜条件反射消除,但不影响“非条件”反射,而在经一周巩固训练的动物,损毁小脑皮层上述区域不发生影响。D-I 核的细胞自发电活动在学习初期和记忆巩固时期也有所不同。在学习后期,D-I 核的细胞自发电活动频率减低,和在学习初期与损毁小脑皮层后的频率变化相似。实验结果表明:在瞬膜条件反射过程中,以小脑皮层为主导,对瞬膜条件反射的产生和D-I 核的学习相关性电活动具有调制作用。随着记忆巩固过程,D-I 核脱离皮层的控制而发展成为这一学习模式的记忆痕迹基础部位。     

2003年国际生物学奥林匹克竞赛理论试题(3)

行为学35.在什么条件下,巴甫洛夫的条件反射会最优化:A.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;无条件刺激比条件刺激强B.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;无条件刺激比条件刺激弱C.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;条件刺激比无条件刺激强D.无条件刺激在条件刺激之前;条件刺激比无条件刺激弱36.人们深入研究了布谷鸟(Cuculuscanorus)和它的寄主作用一个尚未终结的协同进化,布谷鸟在一种小型雀型目鸟类(Passeriformes)的巢中产蛋寄生。由于协同进化,布谷鸟和它的寄主产生不同的行为。下列句子是真的:1)寄主在下午产蛋2)布谷鸟吃寄主蛋3)寄主攻击布谷鸟4)布谷鸟产…     

小鼠在体海马长时程增强记录技术

目的:建立记录小鼠在体海马"前穿通纤维-齿状回"(PP-DG)神经通路长时程增强(LTP)的方法.方法:动物麻醉后固定于立体定位仪上,参照立体定位参数将刺激电极插入至前穿通纤维,记录电极插入至DG颗粒细胞层,而后进行LTP的诱发和记录.结果:对各种实验条件优化后,成功记录了Balb/c小鼠海马PP-DG通路LTP.应用该方法对快速老化模型小鼠(SAM)的快速老化亚系SAMP8和抗快速老化亚系SAMRl海马神经突触可塑性进行考察,结果表明在体海马LTP与脑片LTP和行为学实验结果相符.结论:成功建立了小鼠在体海马PP-DG通路LTP的记录方法,可用于整体动物神经突触可塑性的评价.     

Role of reuniens nucleus projections to the medial prefrontal cortex and to the hippocampal pyramidal CA1 area in associative learning

We studied the interactions between short- and long-term plastic changes taking place during the acquisition of a classical eyeblink conditioning and following high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the reuniens nucleus in behaving mice. Synaptic changes in strength were studied at the reuniens-medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the reuniens-CA1 synapses. Input/output curves and a paired-pulse study enabled determining the functional capabilities of the two synapses and the optimal intensities to be applied at the reuniens nucleus during classical eyeblink conditioning and for HFS applied to the reuniens nucleus. Animals were conditioned using a trace paradigm, with a tone as conditioned stimulus (CS) and an electric shock to the trigeminal nerve as unconditioned stimulus (US). A single pulse was presented to the reuniens nucleus to evoke field EPSPs (fEPSPs) in mPFC and CA1 areas during the CS-US interval. No significant changes in synaptic strength were observed at the reuniens-mPFC and reuniens-CA1 synapses during the acquisition of eyelid conditioned responses (CRs). Two successive HFS sessions carried out during the first two conditioning days decreased the percentage of CRs, without evoking any long-term potentiation (LTP) at the recording sites. HFS of the reuniens nucleus also prevented the proper acquisition of an object discrimination task. A subsequent study revealed that HFS of the reuniens nucleus evoked a significant decrease of paired-pulse facilitation. In conclusion, reuniens nucleus projections to prefrontal and hippocampal circuits seem to participate in the acquisition of associative learning through a mechanism that does not required the development of LTP.     

A pitfall for the expectancy theory of human eyelid conditioning

Two simple eyeblink conditioning experiments with random intermittent reinforcement schedules were performed. In Experiment 1, subjects had to rate their expectancy for an unconditioned stimulus (US) on a seven-level scale prior to each trial. As anticipated, expectancy for US increased with a successive conditioned stimulus (CS) alone, and decreased with successive CS-US pairings. However, Experiments 1 and 2 showed that the frequency of eyeblink conditioned responses (CRs) evolved in a direction opposite to that of expectancy changes: CRs increased, whereas expectancy for US decreased, and vice versa. The possible effect of sensitization on eyeblink response was ruled out by the lack of a run effect in an unpaired control group in Experiment 2. These results tend to disconfirm the expectancy theory of conditioning. Although they were explicitly predicted by the conventional "strength" theory of conditioning, an alternative interpretation is proposed within a cognitive framework.     

Deep Cerebellar Nuclei Play an Important Role in Two-Tone Discrimination on Delay Eyeblink Conditioning in C57BL/6 Mice

Previous studies have shown that deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN)-lesioned mice develop conditioned responses (CR) on delay eyeblink conditioning when a salient tone conditioned stimulus (CS) is used, which suggests that the cerebellum potentially plays a role in more complicated cognitive functions. In the present study, we examined the role of DCN in tone frequency discrimination in the delay eyeblink-conditioning paradigm. In the first experiment, DCN-lesioned and sham-operated mice were subjected to standard simple eyeblink conditioning under low-frequency tone CS (LCS: 1 kHz, 80 dB) or high-frequency tone CS (HCS: 10 kHz, 70 dB) conditions. DCN-lesioned mice developed CR in both CS conditions as well as sham-operated mice. In the second experiment, DCN-lesioned and sham-operated mice were subjected to two-tone discrimination tasks, with LCS+ (or HCS+) paired with unconditioned stimulus (US), and HCS− (or LCS−) without US. CR% in sham-operated mice increased in LCS+ (or HCS+) trials, regardless of tone frequency of CS, but not in HCS− (or LCS−) trials. The results indicate that sham-operated mice can discriminate between LCS+ and HCS− (or HCS+ and LCS−). In contrast, DCN-lesioned mice showed high CR% in not only LCS+ (or HCS+) trials but also HCS− (or LCS−) trials. The results indicate that DCN lesions impair the discrimination between tone frequency in eyeblink conditioning. Our results suggest that the cerebellum plays a pivotal role in the discrimination of tone frequency.     

Reevaluating the Role of the Hippocampus in Delay Eyeblink Conditioning

The role of the hippocampus in delay eyeblink conditioning (DEC) remains controversial. Here, we investigated the involvement of the hippocampus in DEC with a soft tone as the conditioned stimulus (CS) by using electrolytic lesions or muscimol inactivation of guinea pig dorsal hippocampus. Interestingly, when a soft tone was used as a CS, electrolytic lesions of the hippocampus significantly retarded acquisition of the conditioned response (CR), and muscimol infusions into hippocampus distinctly inhibited the acquisition and expression of CR, but had no significant effect on consolidation of well-learned CR. In contrast, both electrolytic lesions and muscimol inactivation of hippocampus produced no significant deficits in the CR when a loud tone was used as the CS. These results demonstrate that the hippocampus is essential for the DEC when the delay task was rendered more difficult.     

Hippocampal State-Dependent Behavioral Reflex to an Identical Sensory Input in Rats

We examined the local field potential of the hippocampus to monitor brain states during a conditional discrimination task, in order to elucidate the relationship between ongoing brain states and a conditioned motor reflex. Five 10-week-old Wistar/ST male rats underwent a serial feature positive conditional discrimination task in eyeblink conditioning using a preceding light stimulus as a conditional cue for reinforced trials. In this task, a 2-s light stimulus signaled that the following 350-ms tone (conditioned stimulus) was reinforced with a co-terminating 100-ms periorbital electrical shock. The interval between the end of conditional cue and the onset of the conditioned stimulus was 4±1 s. The conditioned stimulus was not reinforced when the light was not presented. Animals successfully utilized the light stimulus as a conditional cue to drive differential responses to the identical conditioned stimulus. We found that presentation of the conditional cue elicited hippocampal theta oscillations, which persisted during the interval of conditional cue and the conditioned stimulus. Moreover, expression of the conditioned response to the tone (conditioned stimulus) was correlated with the appearance of theta oscillations immediately before the conditioned stimulus. These data support hippocampal involvement in the network underlying a conditional discrimination task in eyeblink conditioning. They also suggest that the preceding hippocampal activity can determine information processing of the tone stimulus in the cerebellum and its associated circuits.     

Training-Dependent Associative Learning Induced Neocortical Structural Plasticity: A Trace Eyeblink Conditioning Analysis

Studies utilizing general learning and memory tasks have suggested the importance of neocortical structural plasticity for memory consolidation. However, these learning tasks typically result in learning of multiple different tasks over several days of training, making it difficult to determine the synaptic time course mediating each learning event. The current study used trace-eyeblink conditioning to determine the time course for neocortical spine modification during learning. With eyeblink conditioning, subjects are presented with a neutral, conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with a salient, unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit an unconditioned response (UR). With multiple CS-US pairings, subjects learn to associate the CS with the US and exhibit a conditioned response (CR) when presented with the CS. Trace conditioning is when there is a stimulus free interval between the CS and the US. Utilizing trace-eyeblink conditioning with whisker stimulation as the CS (whisker-trace-eyeblink: WTEB), previous findings have shown that primary somatosensory (barrel) cortex is required for both acquisition and retention of the trace-association. Additionally, prior findings demonstrated that WTEB acquisition results in an expansion of the cytochrome oxidase whisker representation and synaptic modification in layer IV of barrel cortex. To further explore these findings and determine the time course for neocortical learning-induced spine modification, the present study utilized WTEB conditioning to examine Golgi-Cox stained neurons in layer IV of barrel cortex. Findings from this study demonstrated a training-dependent spine proliferation in layer IV of barrel cortex during trace associative learning. Furthermore, findings from this study showing that filopodia-like spines exhibited a similar pattern to the overall spine density further suggests that reorganization of synaptic contacts set the foundation for learning-induced neocortical modifications through the different neocortical layers.     

Concomitant Pavlovian conditioning of heart rate and leg flexion responses in the rat

Pavlovian conditioning was studied in male Fischer 344 rats using tones as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and footshock as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Different groups of animals received (a) contiguous CS-UCS pairings with a 0.5 sec CS, (b) contiguous CS-UCS pairings with a 4.0 sec CS, or (c) a random sequence of noncontiguous tones and shocks using either a 0.5 sec or a 4.0 sec CS. Heart rate (HR) and leg flexion (LF) responses were recorded. Leg flexion conditioning occurred only in the 0.5 sec contiguous group. Decelerative HR CRs occurred only in the 4.0 sec contiguous group. Accelerative HR changes occurred in the other two groups but were significantly greater in the 0.5 sec contiguous group. These results are similar to but not identical to those obtained during eyeblink or nictitating membrane conditioning in rabbits, and suggest that the topography of the Pavlovian HR CR is dependent on the simultaneous occurrence of other classically conditioned responses.     

Implicit Memory in Monkeys: Development of a Delay Eyeblink Conditioning System with Parallel Electromyographic and High-Speed Video Measurements

Delay eyeblink conditioning, a cerebellum-dependent learning paradigm, has been applied to various mammalian species but not yet to monkeys. We therefore developed an accurate measuring system that we believe is the first system suitable for delay eyeblink conditioning in a monkey species (Macaca mulatta). Monkey eyeblinking was simultaneously monitored by orbicularis oculi electromyographic (OO-EMG) measurements and a high-speed camera-based tracking system built around a 1-kHz CMOS image sensor. A 1-kHz tone was the conditioned stimulus (CS), while an air puff (0.02 MPa) was the unconditioned stimulus. EMG analysis showed that the monkeys exhibited a conditioned response (CR) incidence of more than 60% of trials during the 5-day acquisition phase and an extinguished CR during the 2-day extinction phase. The camera system yielded similar results. Hence, we conclude that both methods are effective in evaluating monkey eyeblink conditioning. This system incorporating two different measuring principles enabled us to elucidate the relationship between the actual presence of eyelid closure and OO-EMG activity. An interesting finding permitted by the new system was that the monkeys frequently exhibited obvious CRs even when they produced visible facial signs of drowsiness or microsleep. Indeed, the probability of observing a CR in a given trial was not influenced by whether the monkeys closed their eyelids just before CS onset, suggesting that this memory could be expressed independently of wakefulness. This work presents a novel system for cognitive assessment in monkeys that will be useful for elucidating the neural mechanisms of implicit learning in nonhuman primates.     

Role of Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Serial Feature-Positive Discrimination Task during Eyeblink Conditioning in Mice

We investigated the role of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) in eyeblink serial feature-positive discrimination learning in mice using the mAChR antagonist. A 2-s light cue was delivered 5 or 6 s before the presentation of a 350-ms tone paired with a 100-ms periorbital electrical shock (cued trial) but not before the tone-alone presentation (non-cued trial). Mice received 30 cued and 30 non-cued trials each day in a random order. We found that saline-injected control mice were successfully discriminating between cued and non-cued trials within a few days of conditioning. The mice responded more frequently to the tone in cued trials than in non-cued trials. Analysis of conditioned response (CR) dynamics revealed that the CR onset latency was shorter in cued trials than in non-cued trials, despite the CR peak amplitude not differing significantly between the two conditions. In contrast, scopolamine-injected mice developed an equal number of CRs with similar temporal patterns irrespective of the presence of the cue during the 7 days of conditioning, indicating in a failure to acquire conditional discrimination. In addition, the scopolamine administration to the control mice after they had successfully acquired discrimination did not impair the conditional discrimination and expression of pre-acquired CR. These results suggest that mAChRs may play a pivotal role in memory formation in the conditional brain state associated with the feature cue; however they are unlikely to be involved in the development of discrimination after conditional memory had formed in the serial feature-positive discrimination task during eyeblink conditioning.