Analysis of Grassland Vegetation of the Southwest Heilongjiang Steppe （China） Using the Power Law

In 1997, we conducted a vegetation survey in three semi-arid natural grasslands （steppes） with different livestock grazing intensities in Southwest Heilongjiang Province, China, The dominant grassland species was the grass Stipa baicalensis Roshev. Grasslands with light, intermediate, and heavy grazing intensities were located 10, 5, and 2 km from a village, respectively. Villagers use the steppe to raise cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Each of the three grasslands was surveyed by placing 100 quadrats （50 cm×50 cm） along a 50 m line transect. Each quadrat was divided into four equal areas （25 cm×25 cm; S-quadrats） and all plant species occurring in each of these smaller areas were identified and recorded. These data were summarized into frequency distributions and the percentage of S-quadrats containing a given species and the variance of each species were estimated. The power law was applied to these estimates. The power law was used to evaluate the spatial heterogeneity and frequency of occurrence for each species in the grassland community. The lightly grazed grassland exhibited high spatial heterogeneity （caused by large plant size）, the highest species diversity, and a high occurrence of S. baicalensis. In contrast, the heavily grazed grassland exhibited high spatial heterogeneity （caused by patchy populations of small plant size）, low species diversity, and a low occurrence of S. baicalensis. We judged that the heavily grazed grassland was overgrazed and exclusion of livestock from the degraded areas is necessary for recovery.     

禁牧条件下不同类型草地群落结构特征

利用幂乘方法则模型探讨了鄂尔多斯3种不同类型草地在禁牧情况下的群落结构特征,包括物种组成、物种多样性、生物量和空间分布规律。结果表明:幂乘方法则在解析鄂尔多斯不同类型草地的空间异质性时具有很好的吻合性;羊草(Leymuschinensis)草地、芨芨草(Achnatherum splendens)草地和油蒿(Artemisia ordosica)灌丛草地均比随机分布呈现了较强的空间异质性,群落整体的空间异质性指数表现为油蒿灌丛草地>羊草草地>芨芨草草地;群落整体的物种多样性指数为油蒿灌丛草地>羊草草地>芨芨草草地;L-样方(50cm×50cm)内的平均物种数和物种多样性指数均表现为羊草草地极显著地高于油蒿灌丛草地,油蒿灌丛草地又极显著地高于芨芨草草地(P<0.001);L-样方内的平均生物量表现为油蒿灌丛草地极显著地高于芨芨草草地(P<0.001),而羊草草地与油蒿灌丛草地以及芨芨草草地之间没有显著性差异;这3种类型的草地其L-样方内的平均生物量和物种多样性指数都随着群落整体空间异质性指数的增大而增大。     

放牧强度对短花针茅荒漠草原甲虫群落分布格局的影响

放牧对脆弱的荒漠草原生态系统有着重要影响,且随放牧强度及持续时间不同而变化。鞘翅目昆虫是环境监测与生物多样性变化的指示生物。利用巴氏罐诱法对短花针茅荒漠草原不同放牧强度草地的甲虫群落组成和多样性进行调查,探究放牧对荒漠草原甲虫群落的影响。结果表明:(1)步甲科、金龟科为短花针茅荒漠草原甲虫群落优势类群,埋葬甲科、芫菁科、拟步甲科和花金龟科为常见类群。(2)放牧强度增加不利于维持更多的捕食性甲虫;对照和轻度放牧样地可维持更多的腐食性甲虫。(3)甲虫数量随放牧强度增加而递减;群落多样性以重度放牧草地最大,轻度放牧草地最小;群落优势度为对照、中度、重度显著高于轻度放牧草地。各甲虫类群在不同放牧强度草地出现时间、高峰期均不同。(4)对照、轻度、重度放牧样地的甲虫优势类群群落结构不同于其他生境,但均与中度放牧样地存在相似性。轻度、中度、重度放牧样地的甲虫稀有类群群落结构不同于其他生境,但均与对照样地存在相似性。(5)甲虫群落个体数与植物群落物种丰富度、盖度、植物平均高度、生物量呈显著正相关。Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Margalef丰富度指数均与植物群落物种丰富度、生物量显著负相关。研究结果为荒漠草原甲虫多样性保护提供参考依据。     

Does resource availability,resource heterogeneity or species turnover mediate changes in plant species richness in grazed grasslands?

Grazing by large ungulates often increases plant species richness in grasslands of moderate to high productivity. In a mesic North American grassland with and without the presence of bison (Bos bison), a native ungulate grazer, three non-exclusive hypotheses for increased plant species richness in grazed grasslands were evaluated: (1) bison grazing enhances levels of resource (light and N) availability, enabling species that depend on higher resource availability to co-occur; (2) spatial heterogeneity in resource availability is enhanced by bison, enabling coexistence of a greater number of plant species; (3) increased species turnover (i.e. increased species colonization and establishment) in grazed grassland is associated with enhanced plant species richness. We measured availability and spatial heterogeneity in light, water and N, and calculated species turnover from long-term data in grazed and ungrazed sites in a North American tallgrass prairie. Both regression and path analyses were performed to evaluate the potential of the three hypothesized mechanisms to explain observed patterns of plant species richness under field conditions. Experimental grazing by bison increased plant species richness by 25% over an 8-year period. Neither heterogeneity nor absolute levels of soil water or available N were related to patterns of species richness in grazed and ungrazed sites. However, high spatial heterogeneity in light and higher rates of species turnover were both strongly related to increases in plant species richness in grazed areas. This suggests that creation of a mosaic of patches with high and low biomass (the primary determinant of light availability in mesic grasslands) and promotion of a dynamic species pool are the most important mechanisms by which grazers affect species richness in high productivity grasslands.     

不同放牧强度下短花针茅荒漠草原植被的空间异质性

分析不同放牧强度下植物群落中物种的空间分布特征, 有助于阐明群落在放牧胁迫下的演替规律。该研究基于幂函数法则, 探讨了不同放牧强度下短花针茅(Stipa breviflora)荒漠草原群落植物的频率和空间异质性。结果表明: 不同放牧强度下物种空间分布与幂函数法则能很好地吻合; 不同物种空间异质性具有特异性, 随着放牧强度的增加, 提高群落空间异质性的物种分别由无芒隐子草(Cleistogenes songorica)、冷蒿(Artemisia frigida)、短花针茅、银灰旋花(Convolvulus ammannii)等多个物种逐渐转变为以无芒隐子草、短花针茅为主的少数物种, 同时, 物种空间异质性大于群落空间异质性的物种数逐渐减少。     

A measure for spatial heterogeneity of a grassland vegetation based on the beta‐binomial distribution

Abstract. A method is proposed to estimate the frequency and the spatial heterogeneity of occurrence of individual plant species composing the community of a grassland or a plant community with a short height. The measure is based on the beta‐binomial distribution. The weighted average heterogeneity of all the species composing a community provides a measure of community‐level heterogeneity determining the spatial intricateness of community composition of existing species. As an example to illustrate the method, a sown grassland with grazing cows was analysed, on 102 quadrats of 50 cm × 50 cm, each of which divided into four small quadrats of 25 cm × 25 cm. The frequency of occurrence for all the species was recorded in each small quadrat. Good fits to the beta‐binomial series for most species of the community were obtained. These results indicate that (1) each species is distributed heterogeneously with respective spatial patterns, (2) the degree of heterogeneity is different from species to species, and (3) the beta‐binomial distribution can be applied for grassland communities. In most of the observed species spatial heterogeneity is often characterized by species‐specific propagating traits: seed‐propagating plant species exhibited a low heterogeneity/random pattern while clonal species exhibited a high heterogeneity/aggregated pattern. This measure can be applied to field surveys and to the estimation of community parameters for grassland diagnosis.     

Effects of livestock grazing on aboveground insect communities in semi-arid grasslands of southeastern Arizona

Despite the importance of invertebrates in grassland ecosystems, few studies have examined how grassland invertebrates have been impacted by disturbances in the southwestern United States. These grasslands may be particularly sensitive to one common disturbance, livestock grazing, because they have not recently evolved in the presence of large herds of bison, an important mammalian herbivore. This study examined how livestock grazing influenced vegetation-associated insect communities in southeastern Arizona. Insect abundance, richness, diversity, community composition, and key environmental variables were compared between sites on active cattle ranches and sites on a 3160 ha sanctuary that has not been grazed by cattle for over 25 years. Vegetation-associated insect communities were found to be sensitive to livestock grazing. Overall abundance of these insects was lower on grazed grasslands, and certain insect orders appeared to be negatively affected by livestock grazing; beetles were less rich, flies were less diverse, and Hymenoptera were less rich and diverse on grazed sites. Conversely, Hemiptera were more diverse on grazed sites. Species composition of vegetation-associated insect communities also differed and was significantly correlated with percent vegetation cover and number of shrubs. Insect species responsible for these differences were taxonomically diverse, and included herbivores and predators/parasites. When compared to other studies conducted in areas of the United States that fall within the historic range of bison, this study suggests that invertebrates in areas outside this range may be more sensitive to grazing pressure.     

放牧和刈割条件下草山草坡群落空间异质性分析

采用变异矩分析和分形方法,研究了草山草坡群落在放牧和刈割条件下的空间异质性及空间自相关性,结果表明,群落空间格局有尺度依赖性,刈割条件下空物异质性及空间相关性弱,多样性梯度即β多样性小,放牧消除地形引起的样地差异,因而使空间异质性简单化。     

内蒙古锡林河流域植被退化的格局及驱动力分析

草地退化是中国北方草原面临的主要生态问题。该文以1984和2004年草原植被群落调查数据为主要依据, 以优势种、建群种和群落类型及其比例的变化作为主要指标, 并与20世纪80年代的植被类型图比较, 分析了内蒙古锡林河流域草地的退化趋势及其空间分布。根据流域内草地退化的实际情况, 将其分为未退化、轻度退化、中度退化、重度退化和极度退化5种退化类型。另外, 根据近20年前后草地植被变化的实际情况, 又划分了恢复和盐化两个类型。结果表明: 草地退化呈现明显的空间分布, 以锡林河为标志, 总体上从上游到下游退化程度逐渐加剧, 表现为浑善达克沙地进入锡林河的部分及沿河地区为重度退化, 锡林浩特市以北的区域, 尤其是流域的西北部, 已经达到了极度退化; 流域中部的白音锡勒牧场主要是中度退化; 轻度退化则均匀地分布于整个流域; 未退化类型多分布于锡林河的西部, 锡林河中下游地区由于农田退耕、草地围封出现了一定程度的恢复; 锡林浩特市以北沿锡林河植被的盐化程度较重。不同的植被类型退化程度也不同, 沙地灌丛植被轻度退化比例较高, 占植被的43%; 羊茅(Festuca ovina)草原和榆树(Ulmus pumila)疏林沙地中度退化草地的比重较高, 超过50%; 贝加尔针茅(Stipa baicalensis)草原和无芒雀麦(Bromus inermis)杂类草草甸的重度退化面积达50%以上; 极度退化比例较大的有克氏针茅(S. krylovii)草原和小叶锦鸡儿(Caragana microphylla)灌丛化草原。对于羊草(Leymus chinensis)草原, 以轻度和中度退化为主。导致不同区域和不同植被类型草地退化的原因也不尽相同, 从近20年的时间尺度来看, 过度放牧、不合理的居民点布局, 以及道路等是草地退化的主要人为驱动因子。研究结果还显示, 仅以生物量的变化来划分草地退化存在一定的局限性, 因此, 该文以群落优势种和建群种来表征草地的退化类型更具有客观性和实际的应用价值。     

Effects of livestock grazing intensity on soil arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and glomalin-related soil protein in a mountain forest steppe and a desert steppe of Mongolia

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important components of the grassland ecosystems in terms of plant phosphorus uptake and accumulation of glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP). Though Mongolian grasslands are seriously degraded by livestock grazing, the effects of grazing on soil AMF and GRSP remain unclear. Here, we examined community composition and diversity of AMF as well as amount of GRSP at three different grazing intensities: lightly grazed (LG), moderately grazed (MG), and heavily grazed (HG) under two different types of grassland, mountain forest steppe at Hustai and desert steppe at Mandalgobi. The diversity and biomass of AMF-host and non-AMF plants strongly affected the overall AMF community composition and its diversity. When we separately analyzed the factors affecting soil AMF diversity at Hustai and Mandalgobi, decrease in the shoot biomass of Poaceae plants at Hustai and decreases in the species number and shoot biomass of AMF-host plants at Mandalgobi were significantly correlated with AMF diversity. GRSP decreased with increasing grazing intensity, which was significantly correlated with soil pH and total root biomass at Hustai. The decrease in plant biomass caused by grazing thus led to GRSP reduction. Our results showed that change in soil AMF community caused by livestock grazing were associated with change in the biomass and diversity of functional vegetation groups such as Poaeceae, AMF-host and non-AMF plants, indicating the importance to focus on such functional vegetation groups to evaluate the effect of grazing on AMF.

     

Cattle grazing in CRP grasslands during the nesting season: effects on avian abundance and diversity

The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) is a primary tool for restoring grassland in the United States, in part as wildlife habitat, which has benefited declining grassland bird populations. Among potential mid-contract management practices used to maintain early-successional CRP grasslands, cattle grazing had been prohibited and is currently disincentivized during the primary nesting season for birds (much of the growing season), despite the important role that large herbivores historically played in structuring grassland ecosystems. Conservative grazing of CRP grasslands could increase spatial heterogeneity in vegetation structure and plant diversity, potentially supporting higher densities of some grassland bird species and higher bird diversity. Our objective was to determine the effect of experimental cattle grazing on species-specific relative abundance and occupancy, species diversity, and community dissimilarity of grassland birds on CRP grasslands across the longitudinal extent of Kansas, USA (a 63.5-cm precipitation gradient) during the 2017–2019 avian breeding seasons. Fifty-three of 108 fields were grazed by cattle during the growing seasons of 2017 and 2018 and all fields were rested from grazing in 2019. For all analyses, we examined separate model sets for semiarid western versus more mesic eastern Kansas. Using data from line transect surveys, we modeled relative abundances of 5 songbird species: grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum), dickcissel (Spiza americana), eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna), western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), and brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). Grazing had delayed yet positive effects on abundances of grasshopper sparrow in western Kansas, and eastern meadowlark in eastern Kansas, but negative effects on dickcissel abundance in western Kansas and especially on burned fields in eastern Kansas. Somewhat counterintuitively, brown-headed cowbirds in western Kansas were more abundant on ungrazed versus grazed fields in the years after grazing began. In addition, we modeled multi-season occupancy of 3 gamebird species (ring-necked pheasant [Phasianus colcicus], northern bobwhite [Colinus virginianus], mourning dove [Zenaida macroura]) and Henslow's sparrow (Centronyx henslowii); grazing did not affect occupancy of these species. In eastern Kansas, species diversity was highest in grazed, unburned fields. In western Kansas, bird communities in grazed and ungrazed fields were dissimilar, as determined from multivariate analysis. Though regionally variable, conservative stocking of cattle on CRP grasslands during the nesting season as a mid-contract management tool might increase bird species diversity by restructuring habitat that accommodates a greater variety of species and decreasing abundances of species associated with taller, denser stands of vegetation.     

Habitat utilization and home range of the redwing francolin, Francolinus levaillantii, in highland grasslands, Mpumalanga province, South Africa

The effects of intensive commercial livestock farming on the distribution and habitat use of the redwing francolin, Francolinus levaillantii, was investigated to identify habitat constraints that may contribute towards the observed decline of this species on livestock farms. Data on the size, placement of the home ranges and compositional habitat use from ten radio‐tracked individuals, five in commercially grazed (and frequently burned) and five in protected (and infrequently burned) highland grasslands, was collated to determine habitat preferences. Mean home range size within protected and grazed grassland study sites were similar and ranged between 7.6 and 15.4 hectares. However, habitat use by groups in grazed grasslands was restricted to areas of greater cover and food availability. Group sizes were significantly larger in protected (mean 3.77, n = 111 coveys) than in grazed and frequently burned grassland (mean = 2.96, n = 135 coveys). Smaller coveys in grazed habitats had smaller home ranges and were further spaced from one another. It is therefore suggested that habitat degradation, through excessive defoliation of the grassland from heavy grazing and frequent burning, both fragments francolin subpopulations and reduces the ecological availability of suitable habitat. Thus, undermining the metapopulation structure of the redwing francolin in these commercially grazed grasslands.     

Grazing as a mediator for maintenance of offspring diversity: Sexual and clonal recruitment in alpine grassland communities

To understand the effects of grazing on grassland plants sexual and clonal recruitment, we conducted a demographic field investigation of species recruitment along a grazing gradient in the Tibetan alpine grassland. Grazing intensity had significant effects on quantity and diversity of sexual and clonal recruitment. Sexual recruitment increased significantly, but clonal offspring production decreased significantly with increased grazing intensity. Grazing intensity had different, significant effects on offspring recruitment of the various functional groups in the community, grasses (GG), sedges (SG), legumes (LG) and forbs (FG). Higher grazing intensity reduced offspring recruitment of GG and SG; it increased offspring recruitment of LG and FG. Seedlings were significantly more abundant in lightly grazed, moderately grazed and heavily grazed meadows than in non-grazed grasslands. Offspring diversity from sexual recruitment was significantly higher than that from clonal recruitment in grazed than in non-grazed grasslands. Our studies indicate that moderate grazing had positive effects on seedling recruitment and offspring diversity, but heavy gazing may alter community succession by affecting recruitment patterns among the four plant functional groups.     

Impact of grazing on germination trait selection in an alpine grassland on the Tibet Plateau

放牧对青藏高原高寒草地种子萌发性状选择的影响 以前的研究表明放牧能够引起草地生物与非生物环境的显著变化,但这种变化影响草地群落对种子萌发特征的选择机制尚不清楚。因此,我们旨在回答：放牧是否对草地群落中萌发特征的组成和多样性产生显著影响。我们在实验室检测了研究草地群落内主要物种种子的萌发特性,并比较了这些植物在放牧和非放牧草地上的表现。在此基础上,比较了放牧草地和非放牧草地的各萌发性状的群落加权平均值和萌发性状多样性,从而了解放牧草地和非放牧草地是否存在不同的萌发性状结构。研究结果表明,在物种水平上,放牧和非放牧草地各物种的多度变化与物种的萌发性状无显著关系。但在群落水平上,与非放牧草地相比,放牧草地的物种普遍具有较高的种子萌发率;放牧草地种子萌发对变温的正响应显著大于非放牧草地,而且放牧草地种子萌发温度生态位宽度小于非放牧草地。与非放牧草地相比,放牧草地种子萌发性状多样性增加,萌发性状均匀度降低。放牧可以改变微生境,从而通过环境过滤改变草地群落对萌发性状的选择,导致草地群落的萌发性状于放牧前后在群落水平上存 在显著差异。     

Spatial heterogeneity in a grassland community: Use of power law

A new regression analysis was proposed to evaluate the degree of spatial heterogeneity for individual species comprising a plant grassland community. The weighted average of the heterogeneity value of all the species comprising the community provides a measure of community-level heterogeneity. A field survey was carried out, as an example, in order to analyze the spatial heterogeneity of a pasture with grazing cows, using 100 quadrats 50 cm × 50 cm, each of which was divided into four smaller quadrats 25 cm × 25 cm, on a 50 m long line-transect. The frequency of occurrence for all the species in each small quadrat was recorded. The regression associated with the ratio of the theoretical and observed variances of occurence counts was used to analyse the frequency distribution of species in a pasture community. A good fit to the regression for the whole community was obtained. These results indicate that (i) each species in the example was distributed more heterogeneously than a random pattern; and (ii) the regression could well describe the spatial heterogeneity of the grassland plant community. In most of the observed species, spatial heterogeneity is often characterized by species-specific propagation traits and the architecture of plant bodies. Thus, the spatial patterns of a grassland community can be evaluated in detail by this power-law approach. This measure is suitable for field surveys and comparative studies of grassland communities, and for other plant communities that are generally short in height.     

Grazer exclusion alters plant spatial organization at multiple scales,increasing diversity

Grazing is one of the most important factors influencing community structure and productivity in natural grasslands. Understanding why and how grazing pressure changes species diversity is essential for the preservation and restoration of biodiversity in grasslands. We use heavily grazed subalpine meadows in the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau to test the hypothesis that grazer exclusion alters plant diversity by changing inter‐ and intraspecific species distributions. Using recently developed spatial analyses combined with detailed ramet mapping of entire plant communities (91 species), we show striking differences between grazed and fenced areas that emerged at scales of just one meter. Species richness was similar at very small scales (0.0625 m²), but at larger scales diversity in grazed areas fell below 75% of corresponding fenced areas. These differences were explained by differences in spatial distributions; intra‐ and interspecific associations changed from aggregated at small scales to overdispersed in the fenced plots, but were consistently aggregated in the grazed ones. We conclude that grazing enhanced inter‐ and intraspecific aggregations and maintained high diversity at small scales, but caused decreased turnover in species at larger scales, resulting in lower species richness. Our study provides strong support to the theoretical prediction that inter‐ and intraspecific aggregation produces local spatial patterns that scale‐up to affect species diversity in a community. It also demonstrates that the impacts of grazing can manifest through this mechanism, lowering diversity by reducing spatial turnover in species. Finally, it highlights the ecological and physiological plant processes that are likely responding to grazing and thereby altering aggregation patterns, providing new insights for monitoring, and mediating the impacts of grazing.     

放牧对黄河低阶地盐化草场土壤水盐空间异质性的影响

选定黄河低阶地地形大致相近的放牧草场与封育草场,按实地情况分别设置长770m（放牧）、370m（放牧）和240m（封育）3条样线,采用校正后的便携式WET Sensor以10m为间隔进行土壤水盐的分层（0～10cm,10～20cm）测定,并对其进行地统计学分析.结果表明：黄河低阶地盐化草场表层土壤水盐的变异系数和相关性高于下层,土壤水分的变异系数低于土壤盐分且层间的相关性较高;放牧使土壤水盐之间的相关程度增大,变异降低,且使土壤水分存在一定的冗余.所研究草场的土壤水盐表现为中等或强烈空间自相关,封育盐化草场水盐空间相关尺度的差异较小,而放牧草场则相反.持续放牧已经成为一种稳定影响盐化草场水盐空间分布的结构性因素,使盐化草场的水盐空间异质性减弱.盐生植物在草场内随机分布且不受放牧干扰,是封育盐化草场随机作用较强的最可能原因;而放牧草场内牲畜的啃食和践踏对盐生植物和土壤结构改变所形成的反馈作用大大降低了这些植物对水分特别是盐分的再分配,进而导致放牧草场水盐的含量趋于增大且分布格局趋于简单.     

Floristic diversity of meadow steppes in the Western Siberian Plain: effects of abiotic site conditions,management and landscape structure

Temperate grasslands have suffered from severe habitat loss and degradation worldwide. In Russia, vast areas of forest-steppe grasslands have been converted to cropland during Soviet times, whilst remaining grasslands were often intensively grazed. Contrastingly, the collapse of the Soviet Union have resulted in a massive reduction in livestock numbers and cessation of management. Albeit relatively large natural grassland areas remained in the Western Siberian Plain, their present condition is poorly studied. We analysed plant species composition, functional structure and richness of grassland communities and tested for the effect of local factors (management, abiotic site conditions) and landscape factors (patch size, proportion of land cover types) on diversity patterns. Abiotic site conditions, mainly soil moisture and salinity, differentiated distinct community types. Overall, species richness was highest in meadow steppe communities with lower soil moisture and salinity. Grazing intensity and litter accumulation due to cessation of management were significant negative related to species richness and shaped the functional structure. At the landscape scale, diversity in meadow steppe grasslands was higher in forest-grassland mosaics and in small remnants isolated in a matrix of cropland. Our findings highlight that meadow steppes suffered massively under the historical habitat loss and high grazing pressure. Small species-rich remnants are evidence of the former extent of meadow steppe habitats in agricultural landscape, but are likely threatened by an extinction debt. Low intense, irregular mowing maintained species-rich meadow steppe in forest- grassland mosaics, but currently such practices are declining.     

Land use history and site location are more important for grassland species richness than local soil properties

Lately there has been a shift in Sweden from grazing species‐rich semi‐natural grasslands towards grazing ex‐arable fields in the modern agricultural landscape. Grazing ex‐arable fields contain a fraction of the plant species richness confined to semi‐natural grasslands. Still, they have been suggested as potential target sites for re‐creation of semi‐natural grasslands. We asked to what extent does fine‐scale variation in soil conditions, management history and site location effect local plant diversity in grazed ex‐arable fields. We examined local soil conditions such as texture, pH, organic carbon, nitrogen (N) and extractable phosphate (P) and effects on plant richness in ten pairs of grazed ex‐fields and neighbouring semi‐natural grasslands in different rural landscapes. Each grassland pair where in the same paddock. A multivariate test showed that site location and land use history explained more of differences in species richness than local soil property variables. Plant species richness was positively associated to grazed ex‐fields with low pH, low N and P levels. Sites with high plant richness in semi‐natural grasslands also had more species in the adjacent grazed ex‐fields, compared to sites neighbouring less species‐rich semi‐natural grasslands. Although both soil properties and species richness were different in grazed ex‐fields compared to semi‐natural grassland, the site location within a landscape, and vicinity to species‐rich grasslands, can override effects of soil properties. In conclusion, if properly located, ex‐arable fields may be an important habitat to maintain plant diversity at larger spatio‐temporal scales and should considered as potential sites for grassland restoration.     

After the hotspots are gone: Land use history and grassland plant species diversity in a strongly transformed agricultural landscape

Question: We asked how landscape configuration and present management influence plant species richness and abundance of habitat specialists in grasslands in a ‘modern’(much exploited and transformed) agricultural Swedish landscape. Location: Selaön, south‐eastern Sweden (59°24’ N, 17°10’ E). Methods: Present and past (150 and 50 years ago) landscape pattern was analysed in a 25 km² area. Species richness was investigated in 63 different grassland patches; grazed and abandoned semi‐natural grasslands, and grazed ex‐arable fields. Influence of landscape variables; area, past and present grassland connectivity, present management on total species richness, density and abundance of 25 grassland specialists was analysed. Results: Semi‐natural grasslands (permanent unfertilised pastures or meadows formed by traditional agricultural methods) had declined from 60% 150 years ago to 5% today. There was a significant decline in species richness and density in abandoned semi‐natural grasslands. Total species richness was influenced by present management, size and connectivity to present and past grassland pattern. Landscape variables did not influence species density in grazed semi‐natural grassland suggesting that maintained grazing management makes grassland patches independent of landscape context. The abundance of 16 grassland specialists was mainly influenced by management and to some extent also by landscape variables. Conclusion: Although species richness pattern reflect management and to some extent landscape variables, the response of individual species may be idiosyncratic. The historical signal from past landscapes is weak on present‐day species richness in highly transformed, agricultural landscapes. Generalizations of historical legacies on species diversity in grasslands should consider also highly transformed landscapes and not only landscapes with a high amount of diversity hotspots left.