象山港海域硝化细菌与反硝化细菌的时空分布特征及其与环境因子的关系

分别于2007年的7月(夏季)、11月(秋季)与2008年的1月(冬季)、4月(春季)采用高保真、无扰动重力柱状取样器替代常规抓斗式采样,研究了象山港海域表层海水、上覆水及沉积物中N素转化细菌(硝化细菌与反硝化细菌)丰度的时空分布特征,并采用主成分分析及多元逐步回归分析方法研究了影响该海域N素转化细菌时空分布的主要因素.调查期间,象山港海域水样和沉积物样品中N素转化细菌数量的变化范围分别为30×104～2.4×104 cells·ml-1和30×104～2.4×104 cells·g-1.表层海水、上覆水和沉积物中的硝化细菌数量均值分别2.24×103cells·ml-1、3.61×103 cells·ml-1和6.45×103 cells·g-1,表层海水、上覆水和沉积物中的反硝化细菌数量均值分别为4.84×103 cells·ml-1、5.31×103 cells·ml-1和3.12×103 cells·g-1.表层海水和上覆水硝化细菌数量均值冬季明显高于其他季节,而沉积物中硝化细菌数量均值为秋季、冬季高于其他季节;冬季、春季的反硝化细菌数量高于秋季、夏季.调查期间,象山港海域的硝化细菌及反硝化细菌的空间分布特征明显:垂直分布特征,反硝化细菌表现为表层海水高于上覆水及沉积物,而硝化细菌则表现为沉积物及上覆水高于表层海水;平面分布特征,象山港中部及支港与主港交汇处的站点N素转化细菌数量较高,近岸工农业活动造成的陆源污染及海水增养殖活动造成的养殖污染是造成此空间分布特征的主要因为.多元统计分析表明,N、P营养盐、DO、水温、盐度、有机质污染及初级生产力等是影响象山港海域N素转化细菌分布的主要因素.     

象山港海域硫酸盐还原菌的时空分布及其影响因素

分别于2007年7月(夏季)、11月(秋季)与2008年1月(冬季)、4月(春季),调查了象山港海域的水样(表层海水和上覆水)及沉积物中的硫酸盐还原菌丰度的时空分布特征及主要影响因素.结果表明,水样及沉积物中硫酸盐还原菌实测值的变化范围为30～2300 cells·ml-1,沉积物中的硫酸盐还原菌数量高于上覆水及表层海水;硫酸盐还原菌丰度的平面分布均呈现不均匀状态,人类开发活动较多的地区明显高于其他站点.根据硫酸盐还原菌数量,对底质进行腐蚀性评价结果表明,象山港大部分范围底质具有中等强度腐蚀性.有机质污染、水温、pH是表层海水中硫酸盐还原菌分布的重要影响因素(P＜0.01);上覆水中的硫酸盐还原菌含量与上覆水的营养盐(NO2--N、NH4+-N)呈显著正相关;沉积物中的硫酸盐还原菌含量与沉积物中的石油类呈显著正相关(P＜0.05).     

东钱湖水体异养细菌的时空分布及其与环境影响因素和有机质的关系

为探究宁波东钱湖表层水体中异养细菌丰度的时空分布特征及其环境影响因素对可溶性有机质转化的影响, 实验采用主成分分析及多元逐步回归分析方法研究了三者之间的关系, 结果表明: 调查期间东钱湖表层水体中异养细菌丰度的季节分布特征为夏季>春季>冬季, 支流汇入口、码头或水上乐园区域水体中异养细菌丰度较高, 近岸人类活动带来的陆源污染是造成此分布特征的主要原因; 多元统计分析结果表明ST、DO、COD、Chla、DOM是制约宁波东钱湖表层水体中异养细菌分布的主要环境因素, 且ST、Chla、COD、DOM中的类芳香族蛋白质Ⅰ及类溶解性微生物代谢产物IV与异养细菌丰度呈显著正相关(p<0.05), DO与异养细菌丰度呈极显著负相关(p<0.01); 异养细菌等微生物的代谢转化活动和陆源输入共同决定DOM的来源和转化, 但异养细菌对DOM具体的驱动转化机制有待于进一步的研究。     

闽江口-平潭海域有机解磷菌多样性及群落特征

有机磷的微生物矿化是海洋磷循环的重要环节,开展有机解磷菌研究有助于揭示富营养化海域有机磷矿化的微生物驱动机制。以phoX为标志基因,采用Illumina高通量测序技术分析了闽江口-平潭海域2019年4月(春季)及7月(夏季)有机解磷菌的多样性及群落特征。结果表明: 表层海水样品中有机解磷菌的Shannon指数介于3.21～7.91,各站位多样性春季均大于夏季;沉积物样品中有机解磷菌的Shannon指数介于2.04～8.70,各站位多样性夏季大于春季。春季各站位表层海水有机解磷菌的Shannon指数均高于沉积物,而夏季则相反。表层海水中检测到9个门类的有机解磷菌,主要为变形菌门和蓝细菌门;沉积物中则检测到12个门类,主要为变形菌门和拟杆菌门。在属水平上,有机解磷菌的群落组成呈现时空变异特征。表层海水样品中,春季以雷辛格氏菌属、褐杆菌属、深海球菌属和假单胞菌属等属为主,夏季则以聚球藻属、Halioglobus属、玫瑰变色菌属、褐杆菌属、亚硫杆菌属和生丝单胞菌属等属为主。在沉积物样品中,春季主要菌属包括雷辛格氏菌属、褐杆菌属、弧菌属和亚硫杆菌属;夏季主要菌属包括固氮螺丝菌属、氨基杆菌属、Sulfurifustis属、伯克氏菌属和Thiohalobacter属。此外,在表层海水和沉积物样品中均检测到大量未分类的有机解磷菌。冗余分析显示,溶解氧、水温、pH、可溶性无机氮、亚硝态氮、硝态氮等对闽江口-平潭海域表层海水有机解磷菌群落分布影响较大。表层海水和沉积物中存在的丰富有机解磷菌可能在该海域的磷循环中发挥重要作用。     

浙江近海海域浮游病毒和异养细菌的时空分布

为了解浙江近海海域浮游病毒和异养细菌的时空生态分布, 于2014 年11 月(秋)、2015 年1 月(冬)、2015 年5 月(春)和2015 年7 月(夏)连续4 个季节采集了浙江近海海域表层海水样品, 采用流式细胞仪技术对样品浮游病毒和异养细菌丰度进行了检测, 对其时空分布特征及与环境因子的相关性做了分析。从水平分布来看, 在4 个季节中浮游病毒、异养细菌丰度均为宁波、沈家门、岱山等沿岸海域站位的丰度低, 远陆海域东极和枸杞站位的丰度高。从季节变化来看, 浮游病毒、异养细菌丰度的季节分布特征同为夏>春>秋>冬, 相关性分析结果表明, 春、夏、秋、冬4 个季节, 浮游病毒丰度与异养细菌丰度均为显著正相关。浮游病毒丰度在春、秋、冬季节均与病毒/细菌比值(VBR)显著正相关; 夏、秋季节均与盐度显著正相关; 春、夏季节均与总磷显著负相关; 春季分别于与溶解氧、pH、化学耗氧量(COD)显著正相关。异养细菌在春、秋、冬季节均与VBR 显著正相关; 春、夏季节与溶解氧显著正相关, 冬季与溶解氧显著负相关; 春、夏季节与总磷显著负相关; 秋、冬季节均与温度、盐度显著正相关; 春、冬季节均与COD 显著正相关。     

象山港网箱养殖区水体和沉积物的细菌生态分布

2006年1月和10月对象山港网箱养殖区细菌数量分布及群落结构进行研究,并与周边非养殖海域进行了比较。结果显示水体和沉积物细菌数量均呈现10月份1月份、网箱养殖区网箱外侧对照区近湾顶对照区近湾口对照区的分布特点,其中网箱养殖区水体异养细菌、弧菌数量分别在1.0×106—7.2×107CFU/L和1.6×105—1.3×106CFU/L之间,沉积物异养细菌、弧菌数量分别在5.9×102—6.1×105CFU/g和8.0×101—7.4×104CFU/g之间。网箱养殖区水体分离细菌89株,归属于12个属,其中不动杆菌属(Acinetobacter)、假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)、弧菌属(Vibrio)等为优势菌属;沉积物分离细菌136株,归属于10个属,其中假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)、弧菌属(Vibrio)、芽孢杆菌属(Bacillus)、不动杆菌属(Acinetobacter)等为优势菌属。由于长期受到高营养盐、高有机质等外界条件的选择作用,网箱区及网箱外侧对照区海域的细菌群落多样性较低,某些特定的细菌类群富集。研究表明网箱养殖区的细菌分布和菌属组成特征与养殖自身污染密切相关,并且养殖过程对细菌群落产生的影响已扩展至网箱外侧的邻近海域。     

深圳近海表层浮游细菌分布特征及其环境影响因素

于2015年3月、5月、8月和10月在深圳市近岸海域(珠江口、深圳湾和大亚湾)采集表层水样,利用流式细胞仪测定总浮游细菌、高DNA含量亚群细菌(HNA)、低DNA含量亚群细菌(LNA)的丰度,分析它们的时空分布特点,阐释环境因子对浮游细菌时空分布格局的影响。结果表明,珠江口、深圳湾和大亚湾海域表层浮游细菌的平均丰度依次降低,分别为3.82×10~6个/mL、7.67×10~6个/mL和3.38×10~6个/mL。珠江口海域浮游细菌丰度由远岸到近岸递增,深圳湾海域湾内各站位浮游细菌丰度差异较小,大亚湾海域浮游细菌丰度空间差异不显著(P0.05)。浮游细菌丰度时间差异主要受温度影响,空间差异主要受营养盐和叶绿素a影响。HNA亚群丰度时空差异性比LNA亚群的大,HNA亚群受温度影响显著(P0.01),而LNA亚群与温度相关性不显著(P0.05)。环境对HNA和LNA亚群丰度的影响有许多相似之处,但两者对某些环境因子有着不同的响应,说明它们在近海表层生态系统中可能扮演着部分重叠但略有不同的角色。     

江苏沿岸海域浮游病毒的时空分布

在2006.7—2007.12期间,采用SYBR Green I染色-荧光显微直接计数法,对江苏沿海海域浮游病毒丰度进行了四个季度的调查,同时调查还包括细菌丰度、叶绿素a浓度。浮游病毒水平分布呈现中间高,两侧低。苏北浅滩海域病毒含量最高,最高值为47.90×106个/mL;吕泗海域最低,最低值为0.03×106个/mL。季节变化表现为冬季最高,夏季次之,春秋季相当。垂直分布也变现为明显的季节变化,除秋季外,表层浮游病毒丰度高于底层水体。浮游病毒与细菌丰度比(VBR)为0.30—180.08,平均为18.35。春季浮游病毒与叶绿素a、细菌之间均存在较强的相关性,相关系数分别为0.79和0.74(P<0.01);而在秋季,浮游病毒只与细菌有较强的相关性(r=0.79,P<0.01),这说明不同季节,浮游病毒的主要宿主会发生变化。     

洋山港海域细菌群落多样性的季节变化

洋山深水港是中国大陆首个在远离陆地达30多km的海岛上建立的大型国际港口,水环境复杂;港口环境受港口建设和航运等人类活动的影响巨大。曾有学者针对洋山深水港海域表层海水中古菌多样性进行过调查和分析,但涉及包括细菌在内的微生物多样性尚未深入研究。利用高通量测序技术对洋山港海域细菌丰度、种类组成特征的季节变化进行了研究。结果表明该海域可培养细菌总数1.2—9.1×104CFU/m L,相比其他近岸海域和港口处于较低水平;该海域可培养细菌总数整体情况呈现夏季﹥秋季﹥冬季﹥春季,夏季的可培养细菌总数与其他季节区别明显。该海域优势类群为变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)和蓝藻门(Cyanobacteria),秋季、冬季和春季样品优势类群为γ-变形菌(γ-proteobacteria)和α-变形菌(α-proteobacteria),夏季样品优势类群为黄杆菌(Flavobacteriales)。秋季和冬季的优势类群为盐单胞菌属(Halomonas)和假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas),夏季则被聚球蓝细菌(Synechococcus)和黄杆菌属(Flavobacteriaceae)等代替。盐单胞菌属在洋山港海域内的秋冬春3季所占比例均接近或超过50%,是最具生长优势的细菌类群,是洋山港海域细菌群落中的优势类群,其生长情况同样存在季节性差异。群落多样性指数显示,该海域微生物多样性整体情况呈现夏季﹥春季﹥冬季﹥秋季,夏季相较其他季节而言,细菌种群较多,物种较为丰富,多样性程度高;秋冬两季微生物物种组成相对单一,多样性程度低。结合同时期环境因子,对洋山港海域细菌群落与环境因子数据进行了典范对应分析,结果显示影响洋山港细菌群落季节性差异的主要环境因子依次为总有机碳、盐度、叶绿素a和温度。海水温度和盐度等重要环境因子的季节变化,导致细菌优势类群存在明显的季节差异。     

黄河口邻近海域浮游动物群落时空变化特征

利用2012年12月—2013年9月4个季度的现场调查资料研究了黄河口邻近海域浮游动物群落的时空分布特征。研究表明,黄河口邻近海域共鉴定出浮游动物70种,包括浮游幼虫19类。浮游动物优势种主要由夜光虫(Noctiluca scintillans)、小拟哲水蚤(Paracalanus parvus)、双刺纺锤水蚤(Acartia bifilosa)、拟长腹剑水蚤(Oithona similis)、强额拟哲水蚤(Paracalanus crassirostris)、近缘大眼剑水蚤(Corycaeus affinis)、强壮箭虫(Sagitta crassa)、双壳类幼体(Bivalvia larvae)、多毛类幼体(Polychaeta larvae)等种类。黄河口邻近海域浮游动物丰度夏季最高(60620个/m~3),春季(31228个/m~3)和秋季(21540个/m~3)次之,冬季最低(7594个/m~3)。不同季节浮游动物丰度的空间分布具有差异性,春季浮游动物丰度呈现出从近岸到外海降低的趋势;夏季浮游动物形成两个高丰度区,分别位于河口邻近海区和河口东部海区;秋季和冬季浮游动物丰度高值区均位于河口东部海区。浮游动物生物多样性指数均呈现从河口到外海升高的趋势,低值区位于黄河口入海口附近海区。相关性分析显示,黄河口邻近海域浮游动物丰度与海水温度显著正相关(r=0.212,P0.05),表明温度为影响黄河口邻近海域浮游动物丰度变化的主要因素。     

Effect of long-term lead exposure on the seawater and sediment bacteria from heterogeneous continuous flow cultures

Lead-influenced changes of the composition of seawater and sediment bacteria were studied in two flow cultures run with lead-contaminated artificial seawater (1 mg Pb²⁺1^–1) and one control culture. During the experiment viable counts of physiological groups of bacteria from the control culture were not significantly different from that of the lead-contaminated cultures. Lead tolerance of seawater and sediment bacteria strains was investigated. Comparisons of growth yields showed that lead tolerance of seawater and sediment bacteria was lost again if the bacteria were cultivated in a medium without lead. Lead tolerance could not be demonstrated for the sediment bacteria of one lead-contaminated culture. Heterotrophic uptake measurements with radioactive glucose indicated that seawater bacteria from the lead-contaminated cultures became adapted to lead pollution. The sediment bacteria, however, did not reveal lead tolerance by this method. Fluctuations in lead content of the sediment as well as of the overlying seawater gave indications of adsorption-desorption processes between seawater and sediment. Lead was not homogeneously distributed at the sediment surface.     

Implantation of Escherichia coli in pilot experiments and the influence of competition on the flora

Implantation in seawater and (or) sediment of bacterial flora and the influence of such flora upon the survival and growth of an Escherichia coli of human origin have been the object of experimental pilot studies. The selected pilot plant permitted work on large volumes of seawater and sediment, and maintenance of the structure of the latter. Diverse experiments were carried out in the presence or absence of seawater and (or) sediment bacterial flora during 13 days. Escherichia coli bacteria were introduced in the seawater experimental system at concentrations of 1 to 3 X 10(5) colony-forming units (cfu) per 100 mL. In sterile sediment, E. coli bacteria first went through a proliferative phase and then implanted themselves (3 X 10(4) cfu/100 g at 0 days and 4 X 10(5) cfu/100 g at 13 days). Diffusion in the supernatant sterile seawater of organic matter released from sediment allowed the strain to proliferate (8 X 10(6) cfu/100 mL at 1 day) and survive for a few days (1 X 10(4) cfu/100 mL at 6 days), prior to an ultimate decreasing phase (1 cfu/100 mL at 13 days). In the presence of the seawater indigenous flora, an immediate decrease (2 X 10(3) cfu/100 mL at 6 days), without a growth or even a survival phase, evidenced a selection pressure. In a nonsterile sediment, in the presence or absence of seawater indigenous flora, E. coli bacteria implanted themselves quickly (5 X 10(4) cfu/100 g at 1 day) and survived (1 X 10(4) cfu/100 g at 13 days). In the supernatant seawater, a decrease was observed from the 1st day.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

BACTERIA THAT INDUCE MORPHOGENESIS IN ULVA PERTUSA (CHLOROPHYTA) GROWN UNDER AXENIC CONDITIONS1

Marine foliaceous green macroalgae such as Ulva lose their typical morphology when cultured aseptically in defined synthetic media. However, after reinfection by certain marine bacteria (isolated from unialgal cultures of Ulva pertusa Kjellman), the organisms regain their typical foliaceous or tubular morphology. To investigate the morphogenesis (MG) induced in U. pertusa by bacteria, we isolated and identified bacteria with MG activity on U. pertusa and studied the distribution of such bacteria in seawater and on various marine macroalgae. We isolated 1555 bacterial strains from 18 species of marine macroalgae (six Chlorophyta, five Phaeophyta, and seven Rhodophyta), from seawater and from sediment collected at the beach at Omaezaki, Shizuoka Prefecture; Japan. Of these, 676 bacterial strains (43.5%) showed MG activity. They were classified into six bacterial groups, Flavobacterium, Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Deleya, Escherichia, and gram-positive cocci. These bacteria were ubiquitous among the samples and were not specific to U. pertusa. Several plant growth regulators had no MG activity. Filter-sterilized supernatants of culture media of MG-active bacteria strains did not induce MG. Cocultivation of Ulva with active bacterial strains is so far the only way to induce the MG effect, which suggests that for MG direct contact between Ulva and the bacterial strain is necessary.     

Improved Method of Enumeration of Attached Bacteria for Study of Fluctuation in the Abundance of Attached and Free-Living Bacteria in Response to Diel Variation in Seawater Turbidity

Sample preparation for enumerating attached bacteria in turbid seawater by epifluorescence microscopy was improved by treating samples with a surfactant (Tween 80) followed by sonication. With optimal treatment with Tween 80 (final concentration, 10 ppm [10 μg/ml]) and sonication, as many as 10 times more attached bacteria were enumerated from turbid seawater relative to the number enumerated from an untreated control. Dispersion of bacteria by sonication alone resulted in the enumeration of only 42 to 72% of the attached bacteria. By this technique, fluctuations in the number of attached and free-living bacteria were determined in water from Aransas Pass, Tex., where surface sediments are resuspended on a regular basis by tidal currents. The abundance of attached bacteria increased in proportion to the seawater turbidity that resulted from sediment resuspension. The variation in abundance of free-living bacteria was not directly related to seawater turbidity. However, the magnitude of fluctuation in the abundance of free-living bacteria was related to the extent of turbidity variation during diurnal tides.     

A method of the selective isolation and enumeration of marine Vibrionaceae

A noninhibitory medium and GasPack anaerobic culture system were employed for the selective enumeration and isolation of Vibrionaceae in seawater and marine sediments.Vibrio counts obtained by the new method for seawater and sediment samples were compared with vibrio numbers in the heterotrophic bacterial population appearing on a medium routinely employed in the laboratory for such counts. The ratio of the former to the latter counts ranged from 0.5 to 1.3, the average being 0.96. The seawater and sediment bacteria that grew and produced visible colonies on the medium under anaerobic conditions for 3 days at 20°C were almost exclusively vibrios.From the results reported here it is concluded that most of the vibrios present in seawater and sediment samples can be recovered by the new method developed in this study.     

Relationships Between Environmental Factors, Bacterial Indicators, and the Occurrence of Enteric Viruses in Estuarine Sediments

Current standards for evaluation of the public health safety of recreational and shellfish-harvesting waters are based upon bacteriological analysis, but do not include an evaluation of the number of viruses. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of enteric viruses in estuarine sediments and to find a relationship, if any, between the presence of viruses in seawater or sediment or both and various biological and physicochemical characteristics of the environment. Viruses were found in greater numbers in sediment than in overlying seawater on a volume basis. Several types of enteroviruses were isolated: coxsackievirus types A16, B1, and B5, echovirus type 1, and poliovirus type 2. On several occasions, viruses were isolated from sediments when overlying seawaters met bacteriological water quality standards for recreational use. Statistical analysis of the relationship between viruses in seawater or in sediment and other variables measured yielded only one significant association: the number of viruses in sediment was found to be positively correlated with the number of fecal coliforms in sediment. No other physical, chemical, or biological characteristic of seawater or sediment that was measured showed statistically significant association with viral numbers. No correlation was found between bacterial indicators and virus in the overlying waters. The data indicated that evaluation of the presence of bacteria and viruses in sediment may provide additional insight into long-term water quality conditions and that indicator bacteria in water are not reflective of the concentration of enteric viruses in marine waters.     

Relationships between environmental factors, bacterial indicators, and the occurrence of enteric viruses in estuarine sediments

Current standards for evaluation of the public health safety of recreational and shellfish-harvesting waters are based upon bacteriological analysis, but do not include an evaluation of the number of viruses. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of enteric viruses in estuarine sediments and to find a relationship, if any, between the presence of viruses in seawater or sediment or both and various biological and physicochemical characteristics of the environment. Viruses were found in greater numbers in sediment than in overlying seawater on a volume basis. Several types of enteroviruses were isolated: coxsackievirus types A16, B1, and B5, echovirus type 1, and poliovirus type 2. On several occasions, viruses were isolated from sediments when overlying seawaters met bacteriological water quality standards for recreational use. Statistical analysis of the relationship between viruses in seawater or in sediment and other variables measured yielded only one significant association: the number of viruses in sediment was found to be positively correlated with the number of fecal coliforms in sediment. No other physical, chemical, or biological characteristic of seawater or sediment that was measured showed statistically significant association with viral numbers. No correlation was found between bacterial indicators and virus in the overlying waters. The data indicated that evaluation of the presence of bacteria and viruses in sediment may provide additional insight into long-term water quality conditions and that indicator bacteria in water are not reflective of the concentration of enteric viruses in marine waters.     

UniFrac: a new phylogenetic method for comparing microbial communities

We introduce here a new method for computing differences between microbial communities based on phylogenetic information. This method, UniFrac, measures the phylogenetic distance between sets of taxa in a phylogenetic tree as the fraction of the branch length of the tree that leads to descendants from either one environment or the other, but not both. UniFrac can be used to determine whether communities are significantly different, to compare many communities simultaneously using clustering and ordination techniques, and to measure the relative contributions of different factors, such as chemistry and geography, to similarities between samples. We demonstrate the utility of UniFrac by applying it to published 16S rRNA gene libraries from cultured isolates and environmental clones of bacteria in marine sediment, water, and ice. Our results reveal that (i) cultured isolates from ice, water, and sediment resemble each other and environmental clone sequences from sea ice, but not environmental clone sequences from sediment and water; (ii) the geographical location does not correlate strongly with bacterial community differences in ice and sediment from the Arctic and Antarctic; and (iii) bacterial communities differ between terrestrially impacted seawater (whether polar or temperate) and warm oligotrophic seawater, whereas those in individual seawater samples are not more similar to each other than to those in sediment or ice samples. These results illustrate that UniFrac provides a new way of characterizing microbial communities, using the wealth of environmental rRNA sequences, and allows quantitative insight into the factors that underlie the distribution of lineages among environments.     

Seasonal seawater temperature as the major determinant for populations of culturable bacteria in the sediments of an intact mangrove in an arid region

Mangroves are highly productive marine ecosystems where bacteria (culturable and non-culturable) actively participate in biomineralization of organic matter and biotransformation of minerals. This study explores spatial and seasonal fluctuations of culturable heterotrophic bacteria and Vibrio spp. in the sediments of an intact mangrove ecosystem and determines the dominant environmental factors that govern these fluctuations. Sediment samples were collected monthly from three stations in the mangroves of Laguna de Balandra, Baja California Sur, Mexico, through an annual cycle. Physicochemical parameters included seawater temperature, salinity, and concentration of dissolved oxygen. Viable counts of culturable heterotrophic bacteria and Vibrio spp. were made. In one sample (March 2003), nutrient concentrations (ammonium, nitrites, nitrates, and phosphates), organic matter, pH and sediment texture were also determined. General cluster analyses, analysis of variance of specific variables, and several principal component analyses demonstrated that seawater temperature is the principal determinant of seasonal distribution of culturable heterotrophic bacteria and Vibrio spp. in mangrove sediments. Soil texture, concentration of nutrients, and organic matter concentration contribute to heterogenicity to a lesser extent. A large spatial variation in bacterial populations was observed over short distances ( approximately 1 m) in sampling areas within the same site. These analyses show that the culturable bacterial distribution in sediments of mangroves has high spatial and temporal heterogeneity.     

UniFrac: a New Phylogenetic Method for Comparing Microbial Communities

We introduce here a new method for computing differences between microbial communities based on phylogenetic information. This method, UniFrac, measures the phylogenetic distance between sets of taxa in a phylogenetic tree as the fraction of the branch length of the tree that leads to descendants from either one environment or the other, but not both. UniFrac can be used to determine whether communities are significantly different, to compare many communities simultaneously using clustering and ordination techniques, and to measure the relative contributions of different factors, such as chemistry and geography, to similarities between samples. We demonstrate the utility of UniFrac by applying it to published 16S rRNA gene libraries from cultured isolates and environmental clones of bacteria in marine sediment, water, and ice. Our results reveal that (i) cultured isolates from ice, water, and sediment resemble each other and environmental clone sequences from sea ice, but not environmental clone sequences from sediment and water; (ii) the geographical location does not correlate strongly with bacterial community differences in ice and sediment from the Arctic and Antarctic; and (iii) bacterial communities differ between terrestrially impacted seawater (whether polar or temperate) and warm oligotrophic seawater, whereas those in individual seawater samples are not more similar to each other than to those in sediment or ice samples. These results illustrate that UniFrac provides a new way of characterizing microbial communities, using the wealth of environmental rRNA sequences, and allows quantitative insight into the factors that underlie the distribution of lineages among environments.