黏膜上皮细胞:病毒侵染与机体免疫的初始交汇处

黏膜上皮细胞构成了包括呼吸道、消化道、泌尿生殖道在内的一个广阔的黏膜界面。黏膜上皮细胞、免疫细胞、免疫分子共同组成黏膜相关淋巴组织,构成了一个完整的黏膜免疫防御系统。黏膜上皮细胞通常是病毒感染的初始靶细胞。大多数DNA和RNA病毒都能直接感染黏膜上皮细胞。黏膜上皮细胞在病毒复制过程中可通过各种模式识别受体感应病毒的病原相关分子模式,从而识别病毒,并启动抗病毒固有免疫应答。近10年来,巨噬细胞炎症小体和caspase-1信号通路激活及其相应的抗感染效应成为固有免疫研究一个热点。病原相关分子模式被巨噬细胞识别,启动形成不同类型的炎症小体,激活caspase-1信号通路,诱导炎性细胞因子IL-1β和IL-18产生,造成细胞焦亡。对巨噬细胞炎症小体的研究,加深了人们对固有免疫的理解,促进了免疫识别、免疫信号转导、免疫应答、免疫调节、免疫病理等各个方面的研究。与固有免疫细胞一样,黏膜上皮细胞具有自身特征性的模式识别受体表达和分布。黏膜上皮细胞通过模式识别受体识别病毒病原相关分子模式,并激活NF-κB信号通路,产生炎性细胞因子、I型和III型干扰素,实现快速的炎性应答和发挥抗病毒作用。黏膜上皮细胞的这种快速应答释放出的各类细胞因子共同招募、激活和协调固有免疫细胞发挥固有免疫应答,并进一步调节、诱导特异性免疫细胞产生特异性抗体和T细胞应答。可见,黏膜上皮细胞是病毒侵染与机体免疫的一个最初的重要交汇处。在这个初始交汇处,黏膜上皮细胞不仅对局部黏膜免疫应答起作用,而且对系统免疫应答起着决定性调节作用。然而,黏膜上皮细胞对病原相关分子模式的识别以及相关炎症通路的激活尚处于启蒙时期。黏膜上皮细胞与炎症小体的关系值得进一步研究。新发现的III型干扰素及其在黏膜上皮细胞的独特表达分布,以及其在固有免疫应答中的抗病毒功能近年逐渐得到关注,详细机制需深入研究。此外,黏膜上皮细胞还是黏膜免疫应答特异效应因子Ig A抗体分泌和发挥功能的平台。Ig A特异性抗病毒功能,尤其是Ig A独特的上皮细胞内中和病毒复制的功能机制值得进一步探讨。现将概述病毒入侵黏膜上皮细胞并起始病毒复制过程,以及黏膜上皮细胞识别病毒感染启动固有免疫应答,调节特异免疫应答的研究进展,并探讨部分研究的交叉前沿。     

固有免疫细胞及其模式识别受体与表观遗传学调控研究进展

固有免疫细胞是机体抵御病原微生物的首道防线,亦是机体有效启动和维持免疫反应的重要参与者,而模式识别受体是固有免疫细胞发挥免疫功能的重要免疫分子,因此,机体对固有免疫细胞及其模式识别受体的精细调控尤为重要。表观遗传学是近年研究热点,其在固有免疫调节中的作用逐渐受到重视。就近年表观遗传学中的DNA甲基化、组蛋白共价修饰及非编码RNA等在调节固有免疫细胞分化发育及其模式识别受体的相关研究作一简述,以期为感染、炎症、自身免疫病等研究与防治提供新的思路和策略。     

固有免疫系统识别白念珠菌的分子机制研究进展

白念珠菌是引起机体浅部和深部真菌感染的主要致病菌。机体通过固有免疫细胞表面的模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs),与白念珠菌细胞壁表面的病原相关模式分子(pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)结合,激活机体固有免疫应答。机体和白念珠菌的相互作用可以有效抵抗白念珠菌侵袭,清除白念珠菌感染,但当机体免疫力低下时,白念珠菌会持续引发感染,引起慢性黏膜念珠菌病,严重时可以引发系统性白念珠菌感染危及生命。部分模式识别受体如Dectin-1还通过影响Th17细胞的分化,对白念珠菌的适应性免疫应答发挥一定的作用。该文将对已发现的能够识别白念珠菌的模式识别受体,以及这些受体在机体抗白念珠菌感染中的作用进行讨论。     

MicroRNA调控固有免疫应答的分子机制

MicroRNA（miRNA）是近几年继siRNA之后非编码RNA研究的又一热点．它通过与靶mRNA的特异性结合,在转录后水平上对基因表达进行调控．研究表明,miRNA可能参与脊椎动物固有免疫应答的多个环节．在病原微生物感染时,它们不仅成为重要的固有免疫受体活化后的信号调节分子,而且能够直接干扰病毒复制而发挥抗病毒效应．miRNA可能与经典的固有免疫应答体系共同组成机体抵御病原微生物入侵的“第一道防线”．同时,病原微生物,特别是病毒还可以通过自己编码miRNA或者改变宿主细胞miRNA表达谱直接或间接地干扰很多宿主免疫相关基因的表达,实现逃逸机体免疫清除的目的．因此,miRNA水平的相瓦作用可能是病原微生物与其宿丰展开免疫“博弈”的重要战场．     

固有免疫应答与动脉粥样硬化关系的研究进展

固有免疫应答在动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis,As)的发生和发展中起重要作用．固有免疫应答细胞,包括单核/巨噬细胞、肥大细胞、自然杀伤细胞、中性粒细胞和树突状细胞,是机体抵御微生物和异物入侵的第一道防线．这些细胞广泛参与As中泡沫细胞形成、斑块内基质降解、细胞凋亡、血管新生和斑块破裂等事件．模式识别受体是免疫细胞上识别病原体(或某些内源性成分)相关分子模式的一类受体分子,包括Toll样受体和NOD样受体,介导固有免疫应答反应．Toll样受体在固有免疫应答细胞中具有不同程度的表达,在As中具有不同的作用,如TLR2和TLR4对As起促进作用,而TLR3具有As保护作用．NLRP3炎性体与动脉血管壁的早期损伤有关．对固有免疫应答细胞及模式识别受体在As形成中的作用进行深入研究,不仅有助于理解As的形成过程,而且还能为临床上防治心血管类疾病提供了新的治疗靶点和诊断指标．     

干扰RNA的非靶免疫副作用及其siRNA序列设计与化学修饰

siRNA介导的RNA干扰技术已经成为基因功能研究和开展疾病治疗的有用工具.近年发现,siRNA在哺乳动物体内可激活天然免疫系统,诱导干扰素等炎症因子的分泌,并且可非特异性抑制某些非靶基因的表达,有可能极大限制RNA干扰技术的应用.进行高效特异性siRNA的设计和修饰,以保持或者增强siRNA的特异性靶基因沉默作用,又消除siRNA对机体的非靶免疫副作用,成为使siRNA安全有效应用于临床治疗的关键.     

RIG-Ⅰ介导的TLR非依赖性模式识别

天然免疫在机体抗病毒感染的过程中发挥重要作用.近年来,识别和感受病原体的一系列模式识别受体受到广泛关注,TLR（Toll-like receptor）便是这一领域中的热点,随着研究的深入,一类TLR非依赖性模式识别受体,逐渐活跃在天然免疫识别的舞台,这其中,解旋酶（helicase）家族中的重要成员--维甲酸诱导基因Ⅰ（retinoic acid-induced geneⅠ,RIG-Ⅰ）,主要识别并直接结合到某些5＇端磷酸化RNA病毒,通过蛋白质-蛋白质接触方式,与其受体MAVS（mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein）也称作VISA（virus induced signaling adaptor）、IPS-1（IFN-promoter stimulating factor）或Cardif结合,活化TBK1和IKKe,激活转录因子NF-kB、IRF-3,引起Ⅰ型干扰素分泌上调,发挥抗病毒效应.RIG-Ⅰ途径除了在天然免疫中发挥抗病毒作用以外,也是一些病毒逃逸机体免疫的靶点,如HCV、HAV、GB病毒等.     

NLRP3炎症小体与自身免疫性疾病的相关性研究进展

炎症小体是存在于细胞内由激活自身免疫应答的多种蛋白质组成的复合体,可诱导半胱天冬蛋白酶(caspase)-1自我剪切,caspase-1能够调控白细胞介素(IL)-1β、IL-18的产生,并进而刺激炎症小体的形成和分泌,调控机体的自身免疫应答反应。NLRP3炎症小体属于NOD样受体家族,是一种胞内模式识别受体,主要存在于巨噬细胞和树突状细胞,发挥激活机体免疫炎症的关键作用。病原相关分子模式及损伤相关分子模式与NLRPs结合,启动固有免疫应答,从而导致自身免疫性疾病的发生和发展。本文通过分析归纳近年来炎症小体与自身免疫性疾病的相关性的研究进展,以期为以炎症小体为作用靶点,防治自身免疫性疾病的研究提供指导。     

TANK结合激酶1在固有免疫应答中的作用及其泛素化调控

固有免疫系统通过模式识别受体识别病原微生物表面的病原相关分子模式启动固有免疫反应,经级联信号转导,激活下游转录因子NF-κB和干扰素调节因子IRFs,进而产生炎性细胞因子以及Ⅰ型干扰素,抵抗病原微生物感染。TANK结合激酶1 (TANK binding kinase 1,TBK1) 作为一个中心节点蛋白,参与多条固有免疫信号通路的传导,可同时激活NF-κB和IRFs,是机体抗感染过程中关键的蛋白激酶。TBK1的精准调控对维持机体免疫稳态、抵抗病原体入侵至关重要。文中综述了TBK1在固有免疫应答中的作用及其泛素化调控机制,以期为病原体感染及自身免疫病的临床治疗提供理论基础。     

RIG-Ⅰ信号转导途径在机体抗病毒中的作用

在真核生物体内,除了能够识别入侵机体的病毒RNA的TOLL样受体外,近年来发现了另一种能够识别病毒RNA的细胞质内受体--RIG-I.RIG-I能够识别病毒的RNA组分,并通过自身的CARD与下游信号分子MAVS的CARD相互作用来传递信号,激活细胞转录因子IRF-3和NF-κB,使其进入细胞核内,诱导β干扰素的表达,从而启动固有免疫应答和调节随后的获得性免疫应答,增强机体抵抗病毒的能力.另外,近年来的研究还发现了两个与RIG-I任序列、功能上都有很大相似性的病毒RNA识别蛋白质:MDA5和LGP2.     

Staying on message: design principles for controlling nonspecific responses to siRNA

Short interfering RNAs (siRNA) are routinely used in the laboratory to induce targeted gene silencing by RNA interference, and increasingly, this technology is being translated to the clinic. However, there are multiple mechanisms by which siRNA may be recognized by receptors of the innate immune system, including both endosomal Toll-like receptors and cytoplasmic receptors. Signaling through these receptors may induce multiple nonspecific effects, including general reductions in gene expression and the production of type I interferons and inflammatory cytokines, which can lead to systemic inflammation in vivo. The pattern of immune activation varies depending upon the types of cells and receptors that are stimulated by a particular siRNA. Although we are still discovering the mechanisms by which these recognition events occur, our current understanding provides useful guidelines for avoiding immune activation. In this minireview, we present a design-based approach for developing siRNA-based experiments and therapies that evade innate immune recognition and control nonspecific effects. We describe strategies and trade-offs related to siRNA design considerations including the choice of siRNA target sequence, chemical modifications to the RNA backbone and the influence of the delivery method on immune activation. Finally, we provide suggestions for conducting appropriate controls for siRNA experiments, because some commonly employed strategies do not adequately account for known nonspecific effects and can lead to misinterpretation of the data. By incorporating these principles into siRNA design, it is generally possible to control nonspecific effects, and doing so will help to best utilize this powerful technology for both basic science and therapeutics.     

siRNA-induced immunostimulation through TLR7 promotes antitumoral activity against HPV-driven tumors in vivo

Oncogene-specific downregulation mediated by RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising avenue for cancer therapy. In addition to specific gene silencing, in vivo RNAi treatment with short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can initiate immune activation through innate immune receptors including Toll-like receptors, (TLRs) 7 and 8. Two recent studies have shown that activation of innate immunity by addition of tri-phosphate motifs to oncogene-specific siRNAs, or by co-treatment with CpG oligos, can potentiate siRNA antitumor effects. To date, there are no reports on applying such approach against human papillomavirus (HPV)-driven cancers. Here, we characterized the antitumor effects of non-modified siRNAs that can target a specific oncogene and/or recruit the innate immune system against HPV-driven tumors. Following the characterization of silencing efficacy and TLR7 immunostimulatory potential of 15 siRNAs targeting the HPV type 16 E6/E7 oncogenes, we identified a bifunctional siRNA sequence that displayed both potent gene silencing and active immunostimulation effect. In vivo systemic administration of this siRNA resulted in reduced growth of established TC-1 tumors in C57BL/6 mice. Ablation of TLR7 recruitment via 2'O-methyl modification of the oligo backbone reduced these antitumor effects. Further, a highly immunostimulatory, but non-HPV targeting siRNA was also able to exert antitumoral effects although for less prolonged time compared with the bifunctional siRNA. Collectively, our work demonstrates for the first time that siRNA-induced immunostimulation can have antitumoral effects against HPV-driven tumors in vivo, even independent of gene silencing efficacy.     

siRNA binding proteins of microglial cells: PKR is an unanticipated ligand

Small interfering RNA (siRNA), double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) 21-23 nucleotides (nt) long with two nt 3' overhangs, has been shown to mediate powerful sequence-specific gene silence in mammalian cells through RNA interference (RNAi). Due to its high efficiency and high specificity siRNA has been used as a powerful post genomic tool and a potent therapeutic candidate. However, there is still a lot to learn about the mobility of siRNA inside cells and the cellular factors that might interfere with the specificity and activity of siRNA. Microglia are the brain's effector cells of the innate immune system and suitable targets in the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Here, we show the cellular uptake and intracellular distribution of siRNA in murine microglial N9 cells. siRNA was internalized by microglial N9 cells without transfection reagent and mainly localized to the endosomes However, no significant gene silencing effects were observed. Its cellular uptake and cellular distribution pattern were similar with that of a same length single stranded DNA (ssDNA). Further, cellular binding proteins of siRNA were purified and identified by mass spectrometry. Negative control siRNA and siRNA targeted to beta-actin were used in this part of experiment. Most of the siRNA binding proteins for negative control siRNA and siRNA targeted to beta-actin were dsRNA-binding proteins, such as dsRNA-dependent protein kinase R (PKR). Furthermore, both control siRNA and siRNA targeted to beta-actin activated PKR in N9 cells, which suggest that siRNA might cause off-target effects through activation of PKR.     

Innate sensing of self and non-self RNAs by Toll-like receptors

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have an important role in innate immunity in mammals by recognizing conserved microbial components that are known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Although the majority of these receptors sense pathogen components on the cell surface, a subset of them (TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9) senses viral and bacterial nucleic acids in endosomal compartments. Of considerable interest is the recent finding that TLR7 and TLR8 can also recognize small interfering RNA (siRNA), which is the main effector in RNA interference. This immune activation by siRNAs can be abrogated by the 2'-ribose modification of uridines. Here, we discuss the recent developments that have expanded the understanding of self-non-self discrimination of RNAs by the innate immune system, and consider future directions for therapeutic applications of these findings.     

Innate immune response to viral infection

In viral infections the host innate immune system is meant to act as a first line defense to prevent viral invasion or replication before more specific protection by the adaptive immune system is generated. In the innate immune response, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are engaged to detect specific viral components such as viral RNA or DNA or viral intermediate products and to induce type I interferons (IFNs) and other pro-inflammatory cytokines in the infected cells and other immune cells. Recently these innate immune receptors and their unique downstream pathways have been identified. Here, we summarize their roles in the innate immune response to virus infection, discrimination between self and viral nucleic acids and inhibition by virulent factors and provide some recent advances in the coordination between innate and adaptive immune activation.     

DEAD-box RNA解旋酶家族在天然免疫应答信号通路中的作用

病毒入侵宿主细胞时,宿主细胞启动抑制病毒复制的免疫机制。同样,病毒也会利用多种手段去逃避先天免疫感应机制的监测以及宿主细胞对外来者的降解,同时还会操纵宿主细胞为自身的增殖提供便利。DEAD-box解旋酶家族是一类存在于宿主细胞中的功能蛋白,它们在转录、剪接、mRNA的合成和翻译等多种细胞过程中起着关键作用。该家族成员拥有识别RNA的能力以及参与多个细胞过程,所以它们可以以多种方式影响病毒感染宿主细胞后引起的天然免疫应答。本文就近年来有关于DEAD-box RNA解旋酶在天然免疫方面的研究进行综述,以期为相关研究提供材料支撑。     

Immunostimulatory properties and antiviral activity of modified HBV-specific siRNAs

Sequence-specific gene silencing by small interfering RNA (siRNA) is an intense area of focus in the development of novel therapeutic agents. Currently, there are two major hurdles to achieving clinically effective siRNA-based therapeutics: establishment of an efficient delivery system that transfers the siRNA to the correct tissue(s); and the reduction of unintended immunotoxicity associated with unmodified siRNA. We have developed a novel liver-specific delivery system of apolipoprotein A-I-decorated cationic lipids (DTC-Apo). Here, we show that intravenous injection of an unmodified hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific siRNA encapsulated in DTC-Apo activates the innate immune response in mice. However, 2′-O-methyl (2′-OMe) modification of siRNA sense-strand uridine or uridine/adenosine residues efficiently abrogated the immunostimulatory properties of the siRNA and also silenced viral replication. In contrast, pyrimidine modification by 2′-OMe or 2′-fluoro (2’-F) substitution failed to circumvent liposome-induced immune recognition. Our findings provide useful information for the design of chemically-modified siRNAs for in vivo applications.