Comparing the effects of five naturally occurring monosaccharide and oligosaccharide sugars on longevity and carbohydrate nutrient levels of a parasitic phorid fly, Pseudacteon tricuspis

Abstract.  The longevity and nutrient levels of Pseudacteon tricuspis provided with 1  m solutions of five naturally occurring sugars, fructose, glucose, sucrose, trehalose and melezitose, are compared. All but melezitose, result in significant increases in the longevity of P. tricuspis in comparison with sugar-starved flies (flies provided with water only). Sugar-starved female and male P. tricuspis have an average longevity of 3.3 and 4.1 days, respectively. Provision of free water in addition to sugar solution is necessary for optimum longevity by female and male flies. Longevity is increased by 2.4–2.6-fold by the two monosaccharides, fructose and glucose, and by 2.6–2.8-fold by the disaccharides, sucrose and trehalose. Phorid flies provided with the trisaccharide sugar, melezitose, had a marginal increase in lifespan (approximately 1 day), but this is not significantly different from the longevity of sugar-starved flies. Significantly greater levels of total sugars are detected in P. tricuspis fed the disaccharide sugars (sucrose, trehalose) or the monosaccharide sugars (fructose, glucose), compared with flies provided with melezitose (trisaccharide), or to sugar-starved flies. Fructose is not detected in sugar-starved flies, or in flies fed glucose or trehalose. However, high levels of fructose are detected in flies fed sucrose or fructose, whereas levels of fructose in melezitose-fed flies are intermediate. In general, significantly greater glycogen levels are detected in P. tricuspis fed sucrose, glucose, trehalose or fructose, compared with melezitose-fed or sugar-starved flies. Levels of total sugars and glycogen in sugar-fed flies are positively correlated with wing length, possibly indicating a higher accumulation of storage sugars by larger flies. These results are discussed in relation to the nutritional ecology of the phorid fly.     

Comparing longevity of Pseudacteon species of different sizes: effect of sugar feeding

Sugar feeding is known to enhance lifespan in many parasitoid species. Several species of phorid flies in the genus Pseudacteon (Diptera: Phoridae) have been introduced in the Southern U.S.A. for the biological control of imported fire ants of Solenopsis species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Pseudacteon species are short‐lived flies and little is known about their nutritional ecology. Results from previous studies in our laboratory show that one of the introduced species, Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier, is capable of feeding on sugar sources with a significant increase in lifespan. However, in Pseudacteon phorid flies, the degree to which sugar feeding can enhance the lifespan of other species is not clear, nor is it known whether there is a relationship between body size and longevity. In the present study, the effect of sugar feeding on the survival of three phorid fly species of different body sizes, Pseudacteon cultellatus Borgmeier, Pseudacteon curvatus Borgmeier and Pseudacteon obtusus Borgmeier, is investigated. For all three species, flies continuously provided with 40% or 20% sucrose solution live longer than individuals provided water only or 40% sucrose solution only on the first day of adult life. However, the degree to which sugar feeding enhanced longevity varies by species and is highest for P. obtusus. The data also indicate that longevity in Pseudacteon phorid flies is related to body size: the largest species (P. obtusus) lives significantly longer than the smaller species (P. cultellatus and P. curvatus). These results suggest that adults of all three Pseudacteon species are capable of feeding on sucrose solution and that sugar feeding can enhance their longevity. The significance of these results is discussed in relation to the field performance of Pseudacteon phorid flies as biological control agents of imported fire ants.     

Phenology and parasitism rates in introduced populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudacteon tricuspis</Emphasis>, a parasitoid of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Solenopsis invicta</Emphasis>

We documented patterns of seasonal abundance and rates of parasitism in introduced populations of Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier, a phorid parasitoid of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren. Adult P. tricuspis populations were censused at monthly intervals for 1 year at three sites in northern Florida. Censuses were conducted by aspirating phorids attracted to disturbed S. invicta mounds. Pseudacteon tricuspis adults were present in every month at all sites, although abundances varied greatly among sites and over time. The highest densities of flies (up to 453 censused at 10 disturbed S. invicta mounds in 30 min) were observed in November, and changes in abundance over time were positively correlated among sites. Sex ratios were usually male biased. Parasitism rates were evaluated by collecting workers from field colonies and monitoring them in the laboratory for evidence of parasitism. Parasitism rates were very low – always less than 1%. The average parasitism rate per colony over 16 colonies and 2 years was 0.058%. No pupariation occurred within the first 8 days of collection, suggesting parasitism by P. tricuspis induced behavioral changes in parasitized workers that precluded such workers from our collections. If so, true field parasitism rates may be several times higher than measured here, yet still low in an absolute sense. These low parasitism rates can be reconciled with observed adult phorid densities by considering the large number of host ants present at the study sites.     

Effects of sugar feeding on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in a parasitoid wasp

Lifetime patterns of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism were compared in starved and sucrose‐fed adults of the parasitoid Macrocentrus grandii (Goidanich) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). As expected, sucrose‐fed individuals lived longer than did starved individuals. Macrocentrus grandii males and females eclosed with levels of simple storage sugars (presumably primarily trehalose) and glycogen that were below maximum levels recorded from sucrose‐fed parasitoids. Both of these nutrients dropped to very low levels in starved individuals within 4 days post‐emergence and were maintained at high levels in sucrose‐fed individuals throughout their lives. Lipid reserves at emergence represented the highest lipid levels for both sexes in the two diet treatments, with levels declining over the lifetimes of males and females from both diet treatments. Our results therefore suggest that dietary sucrose is used to synthesize trehalose and glycogen, but not lipids in M. grandii. Also, in contrast to the patterns observed for the simple sugars and glycogen, lipid levels in starved individuals did not drop below levels observed in sugar‐fed individuals. The average number of mature eggs carried by females at emergence was 33 and increased to approximately 85 in sucrose‐fed and 130 in starved females by the age of 5 d in the absence of hosts. The egg maturation rate was therefore higher in starved than in sugar‐fed females. Potential explanations for this unexpected result are discussed.     

Dietary sugars and amino acids increase longevity and enhance reproductive parameters of Bracon cephi and B. lissogaster,two parasitoids that specialise on wheat stem sawfly

The wheat stem sawfly, Cephus cinctus Norton (Hymenoptera: Cephidae), is a major pest of wheat grown on the Northern Great Plains and Canadian Prairies of North America, causing economic losses of as much as $350 million annually. Two species that parasitize wheat stem sawfly larvae in wheat stems are Bracon cephi (Gahan) and B. lissogaster Muesebeck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Carbohydrate-rich diets increase adult parasitoid longevity and reproductive parameters, enhancing their success as natural enemies. In previous studies, these species had increased longevity, egg load, and volume when fed sucrose solutions, encouraging further research on their nutritional needs. Therefore, we conducted experiments with artificial diets using adult females fed sucrose, glucose, and fructose solutions. Females were also fed these sugars in combination with a mixture of amino acids. We assessed individuals daily for longevity. Both species benefited from diets containing carbohydrates, with an increase in longevity from an average of 9 to 51 days for B. cephi, and from 6 to 34 days for B. lissogaster. Additional experiments assessed egg load and volume after 2, 5, and 10 days of cumulative feeding in B. cephi. These females produced 1.4-fold more eggs when fed amino acids, 2.5-fold more with sugar, and 2.7-fold more when fed sugar with amino acids. They had a 1.3-fold increase in egg volume when fed amino acids, 1.9-fold with sugar, and 2.1-fold when fed sugar with amino acids. Our study reveals the nutritional requirements of these braconid parasitoids and the benefits of nutritional sources when implementing conservation biological control strategies.     

Evaluating biological control of fire ants using phorid flies: effects on competitive interactions

The effects of the parasitic phorid fly, Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier, on the competitive interactions between the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, and a native North American ant, Forelius pruinosus (Roger), were investigated in the laboratory. P. tricuspis is a highly host-specific endoparasitoid of S. invicta workers that is currently being reared and released as a biological control agent of S. invicta in the US. We tested the effect of P. tricuspis on the colony growth rate of S. invicta when S. invicta was forced to compete with F. pruinosus for a protein resource (freeze-killed crickets) in laboratory competition arenas. In addition to colony growth rate, we quantified the effect of the phorid flies on the foraging rate of S. invicta. Though S. invicta significantly reduced its foraging rate in the presence of the phorid flies, we did not detect an effect of the flies on colony growth rate. Possible explanations for these results include behavioral compensation by S. invicta for the presence of the flies. We present these laboratory results in light of a literature search indicating that laboratory tests of biological control agent efficacy are good predictors of field efficacy. We conclude that P. tricuspis alone is unlikely to suppress S. invicta populations in the field by reducing their competitive ability.     

Dispersal of the cabbage root fly

The dispersal rates of wild and culture cabbage root flies Erioischia brassicae were determined in release-recapture experiments at Wellesbourne in 1971–3. The experiments were concerned mainly with the first 7 days of adult life. The flies, released from nine locations in the area, were recaptured in yellow water-traps. Dispersal was affected by wind, rain and the terrain the flies were crossing. The flies least often recaptured were those released into the host crop when 6–12 days old. The results indicated the following pattern of behaviour. Flies moved little during the first 2 days of adult life but by the third day both sexes had dispersed to c. 100 m from the release point. Flies are known to mate about the fourth day and after this the males continued to disperse at c. 100 m per day for the three subsequent days. ‘Wild’ females from field-collected pupae carried out a ‘migratory’ flight, however, and dispersed at c. 1000 m per day during the fifth and sixth days, the days preceding the start of oviposition. Similar rates of dispersal were recorded from flies released across host crop and non-host crop areas. Some females did not stop at the first crop they encountered. The culture females from the laboratory-reared pupae dispersed only c. one-third of the distance of the wild females. There was considerable intermingling of local populations. The percentage recapture of young culture and wild flies released during the pre-oviposition period of this species was 38 ± 4 and 19 ±4 for males, and 15 + 2 and 8+1 for females, respectively. The dispersal range of the cabbage root fly is probably within a 2000–3000 m radius of the site of infestation.     

Morpho-functional changes of fat body in bacteria fed Drosophila melanogaster strains

We have examined the addition of Escherichia coli to the diet at day 0 of adult life of females from two Oregon R Drosophila melanogaster strains, selected for different longevities: a short-life with an average adult life span of 10 days and a long-life standard R strain with an average adult life span of 50 days. The addition of bacteria to the diet significantly prolonged the fly longevity in both strains and affected the structure and histochemical reactivity of the fat body. The increased survival was characterized by great amount of glycogen accumulated in fat body cells from both strains. In aged control animals, fed with standard diet, lipid droplets were seen to be stored in fat body of short-lived, but not long-lived, flies. On the whole, our data indicate that exogenous bacteria are able to extend the survival of Drosophila females, and suggest that such a beneficial effect can be mediated, at least in part, by the fat body cells that likely play a role in modulating the accumulation and mobilization of reserve stores to ensure lifelong energy homeostasis.     

Evaluating potential sugar food sources from the olive grove agroecosystems for Prays oleae parasitoid Chelonus elaeaphilus

Chelonus elaeaphilus Silvestri (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is a host-specific parasitoid of the olive moth, Prays oleae (Bernard), that can cause parasitism rates of up to 80% in Mediterranean olive groves. A laboratory study was carried out to assess the potential of sugars provided by wild plant species in olive grove agroecosystem to enhance the fitness of C. elaeaphilus. Insects were reared in a climate-controlled chamber at 25?±?2°C, 60?±?5% relative humidity (RH) with a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h. Five naturally occurring wild plant nectar sugars (sucrose, fructose, glucose, maltose and mannose) were tested for their effect on insect longevity. The nectar sugar content of sucrose, fructose and glucose in 12 selected olive grove agroecosystem plant species was analysed and categorised on the basis of sugar ratios. Female insect longevity was increased when they were fed on both sucrose and glucose compared to either maltose or fructose, suggesting that sucrose-dominant nectars would bene?t this parasitoid. Sucrose was predominant in the nectar of five of the studied plant species (Silene gallica, Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Lavandula stoechas and Lonicera hispânica). The results are discussed in terms of potential enhancement of the biological control of P. oleae.     

Feeding behaviour,midgut distension and ovarian development in Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae)

Phlebotomus papatasi females were fed through membranes or from cotton wool soaked in blood, water, sucrose or sodium chloride solutions. In membrane-fed flies, all diets were routed to the midgut and not to the crop. Following the meals that went to the midgut, females showed ovarian development at least 3 times greater than in sucrose-fed, autogenous control flies. Neither small quantities of water arriving in the midgut following drinking from soaked cotton wool, nor piercing of a membrane without feeding, stimulated ovarian development. Flies exhibited different feeding behaviour namely, blood feeding, sugar feeding, and water drinking. The blood-feeding behaviour was typical of flies ingesting any of the experimental diets through membranes, or blood or saline from cotton wool. The other two types of behaviour were observed in flies which fed from soaked cotton wool. The type of behaviour was characterized by the depth of penetration of the mouthparts into the substrate, the deployment of the palps and the degree of contact between the palps and the surface. It is suggested that the stimuli which control the routing of meals to the crop or to the midgut are derived from these types of behaviour.     

Size-dependent energy reserves, energy utilization and longevity in the yellow dung fly

Abstract.  Teneral reserve components (soluble sugars, glycogen, lipids), as well as proteins, of laboratory-reared yellow dung flies ( Scathophaga stercoraria ) are shown to increase hypo-allometrically (slope < 1) with body size. This is also true for sugars and glycogen of field-caught reproductive flies, the lipid content of which however, increases hyper-allometrically (slope > 1), probably related to foraging or reproductive activity. The longevity, or starvation resistance, of adults subsisting exclusively on their teneral reserves equally increases with body size, and this positive relationship remains when flies have access to sugar, pollen or prey for 24 h after emergence. Energy use, by contrast, is generally not body size dependent, except for lipid (and possibly glycogen) utilization when flies were completely starved. All the results obtained are independent of sex after controlling for sexual size dimorphism. These net results clearly support the greater energy efficiency of larger flies (Kleiber's law), whereas only weak evidence is obtained in support of the contrasting hypothesis of greater absolute energy demands of larger individuals, possibly because such effects are likely masked by stronger size-dependent anabolic effects.     

Host preference in Pseudacteon phorid flies: response of P. tricuspis and P. curvatus to black, red and hybrid imported Solenopsis fire ants in multiple choice bioassays

Host preferences in both sexes of Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier (Jaguariuna biotype) and Pseudacteon curvatus Borgmeier (Formosa biotype) and their relative attraction to the imported fire ants (IFA), Solenopsis invicta Buren (red IFA), Solenopsis richteri Forel (black IFA) and S. invicta × S. richteri hybrids (hybrid IFA) were investigated in two separate experiments utilizing multiple choice flight bioassays. The results of both experiments clearly showed that both sexes of the Jaguariuna biotype of P. tricuspis could distinguish among the three IFA species and demonstrated greater preference for hybrid IFA and red IFA. This conclusion is supported by a variety of data collected on the number of fly visits, attack rate, and hovering duration (Experiment 1), and on the number of trapped flies (Experiment 2), which showed that black IFA is the least preferred of the three species. Similar results were recorded for the Formosan biotype of P. curvatus, although the data were not as strongly conclusive. Females of this biotype spent a significantly greater amount of time in hovering mode over red IFA and hybrid IFA compared to black IFA, but the other data were not significant. The red IFA is the natural host of both phorid fly biotypes and our results suggest that both biotypes may have evolved a specialized relationship with red IFA including an ability to discriminate it from related fire ants. These results are discussed in relation to the possible role of fire ant chemicals in mediating host preferences in phorid flies, contributions of male phorid flies to fire ant biocontrol, and the practical implications of the key findings.     

Nectar sugars enhance fitness in male Coenonympha pamphilus butterflies by increasing longevity or realized reproduction

The principal components of floral nectar are water and the sugars sucrose, fructose and glucose. Several studies have shown the importance of nectar sugars for female butterfly fecundity, whereas to date little attention has been paid to the effect of nectar sugars on male butterfly reproduction. Clear evidence for an effect of nectar sugars on male realized reproductive success is still missing. In this study, we fed male Coenonympha pamphilus butterflies nectar mimics with low (5%), medium (20%) or high (30%) total sugar concentrations with a sucrose:glucose:fructose ratio of 2.7:1.1:1. Sugar solutions were made mimicking Knautia arvensis, an essential nectar plant for C. pamphilus and many other European butterflies. Realized male reproductive success for each treatment was measured indirectly via nuptial gifts, by recording reproductive parameters and by characterizing time patterns over the oviposition period of their female partner. Male butterflies fed high‐concentrated nectar sugars had a longer lifespan than males fed low‐concentrated nectar sugars. In contrast, offspring of males fed medium‐concentrated nectar sugars had a higher hatching mass than progeny of males fed low‐concentrated nectar sugars, indicating a tradeoff between somatic maintenance and reproduction in the use of nectar sugars. Thus, allocation patterns of nectar sugars differed according to sugar concentrations in adult food. The method used in this experiment took into account the indispensable role of female butterflies in passing male nutrients to offspring. With this comprehensive approach, we can show the general importance of nectar sugars for male butterfly fitness and support previous findings suggesting a coevolutionary process between butterflies and flowers dependent on butterfly pollination.     

Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth) and its parasitoid Diadegma semiclausum show different gustatory and longevity responses to a range of nectar and honeydew sugars

Parasitoids as well as many of their herbivorous hosts, depend on carbohydrate‐rich food during the adult stage. Different types of nectar and honeydew vary with regard to their sugar composition. In order to successfully exploit a food source, the insect must show a positive gustatory response to its component sugars and be able to digest and metabolise them. Here we tested the herbivore Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and its parasitoid Diadegma semiclausum (Hellén) (Ichneumonidae: Campopleginae) with respect to their feeding response and longevity when provided with one of nine sugars (fructose, glucose, lactose, maltose, melibiose, melezitose, raffinose, sucrose, or trehalose). Both species responded to and showed a prolonged life span on a broad range of sugars. The impact of food supply on life span was about sixfold higher for the parasitoid than for the herbivore. In general, there was a good fit between gustatory response and achieved longevity, with some outliers. Both species showed only weak responses to melibiose, which significantly prolonged life span. The parasitoid showed a gustatory response to melezitose, which did not prolong its life span. The parasitoid and its herbivorous host responded differently to trehalose. These differences in gustatory response and longevity show the potential for application of selective sugar sources in conservation biological control. At the same time it also reveals a risk that the indiscriminate application of sugar sources may stimulate herbivory.     

Physiological state influences the antennal response of Anastrepha obliqua to male and host volatiles

The sexual and host‐related behaviours of the fruit fly Anastrepha obliqua Macquart (Diptera: Tephritidae) are mediated by volatile compounds. However, whether the physiological state of this species affects its antennal and behavioural responses to semiochemicals is unknown. The effects of age, mating status, diet and the topical application of methoprene, a Juvenile hormone analogue (JHA), on the antennal sensitivity of this tephritid fruit fly species to selected male [(Z)‐3‐nonenol] and host fruit volatiles (ethyl benzoate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl butyrate and trans‐β‐ocimene) are investigated using electroantennography (EAG). Overall, (Z)‐3‐nonenol and ethyl benzoate elicit the highest EAG responses in both sexes. Flies of both sexes aged 1, 5 and 10 days old show higher EAG responses to the tested compounds compared with flies aged 20 days old. Virgin females and males show higher EAG responses to volatile compounds than mated flies. Females and males fed with sugar plus protein show higher antennal responses to volatiles compared with flies fed sugar or protein alone. Flies of both sexes treated with methoprene show higher antennal responses than flies treated with acetone (control). These results suggest that the peripheral olfactory system in A. obliqua is modulated by the physiological state of the flies.     

Effect of semolina-jaggery diet on survival and development of Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is an ideal model organism for developmental studies. This study tests the potential of semolina-jaggery (SJ) diet as a new formulation for bulk rearing of flies. Semolina and jaggery are organic products obtained from wheat endosperm and cane sugar, respectively. Semolina is a rich source of carbohydrates and protein. Jaggery has a high content of dietary sugars. Moreover, preparation of semolina jaggery diet is cost-effective and easy. Thus, the current study aimed to compare survival and developmental parameters of flies fed the SJ diet to flies fed the standard cornmeal-sugar-yeast (CSY) diet. SJ diet enhanced survival of flies without affecting fecundity; male flies showed increased resistance to starvation. A higher number of flies emerged at F₂ and F₃ generation when fed the SJ diet than when fed the control CSY diet. SJ diet did not increase fly body weight and lipid percentage. Therefore, SJ diet can be used for bulk rearing of healthy flies at par with the standard cornmeal-sugar-yeast diet.     

Effect of six sugars on the longevity,oviposition performance and nutrition accumulation in an endoparasitoid,Meteorus pulchricornis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

The effects of six sugar resources (fructose, glucose, sucrose, trehalose, raffinose and honey) on the longevity, oviposition performance and nutrition levels of Meteorus pulchricornis, a thelytokous larval endoparasitoid of the common cutworm Spodoptera litura were examined under laboratory conditions. Female adults of M. pulchricornis fed 1 M fructose, glucose, trehalose or sucrose solutions survived longer than those fed on other sugar solutions or water. When provided with honey or sucrose solutions, the female parasitoids laid more offspring than those fed other sugar diets or the control. The body size of offspring driven from honey-, fructose-, sucrose-, and glucose-fed females, along with water-fed group, were larger than the trehalose- and raffinose-fed females. However, the emergence rates of all offspring generated from different sugars- and water-fed females were similar. When separately given honey, sucrose or fructose, M. pulchricornis females accumulated fructose at a higher level than the other groups. Parasitoid wasps fed trehalose solution accumulated the highest level of total sugar. Glycogen levels and lipid content were highest at emergence and then decreased across all diets. In addition, females fed on trehalose had the highest level of glycogen compared to other sugar diets and water control regardless of emergency level. Females fed trehalsoe, fructose, and glucose solutions had a higher level of lipid than those fed other sugar solutions and water at life end. The outcome of this study can benefit both laboratory rearing and management interventions that improve sugar sources for the parasitoid in the field.     

Genetic dimorphism in the taste sensitivity to trehalose inDrosophila melanogaster

Summary A quantitative behavioral assay was developed for the measurement of taste responses to sugars inDrosophila. The amount of the intake of a sugar solution was measured colorimetrically after homogenization of flies which had consumed sugar solutions mixed with a food-dye. A two-choice method was utilized to determine the taste sensitivity to sugars. Two kinds of sugar solutions were marked with either blue or red food-dye and placed alternately in the wells of a micro test plate. Flies were allowed to choose between the two sugar solutions. By classifying and counting the coloured flies, the relative taste sensitivity could be determined. Employing these methods, a genetic dimorphism in the taste sensitivity to trehalose was found among some laboratory strains ofDrosophila melanogaster. No difference in the taste sensitivity to glucose, fructose and sucrose was found between the trehalose high-sensitivity (T-1) and the low-sensitivity (Oregon-R) strains. Trehalose concentration equivalent to 2 mmol/1 sucrose, in terms of stimulating activity, was 57 mmol/1 inOregon-R and was 10 mmol/1 inT-1. Genetic analysis showed that theTre gene, whose locus is closely linked tocx (13.6) on theX chromosome, is responsible for the difference in the taste sensitivity to trehalose.     

Variation in the abillties of different strains of Drosophila melanogaster to utilize diverse carbon sources

In several experiments, flies of different geographic origins have been tested for their abilities to produce adult progeny on culture media containing primarily one or the other of several sugars. Flies of different origins differ in their abilities to produce progeny on a given sugar; flies of a single origin differ on different sugars. The data reveal a strong strain-sugar interaction as well. Strains of flies maintained for two or more years by mass transfer on culture media containing one or the other of several sugars, including xylose and lactose, adapt to that culture medium. Hybrid flies-either between lines within localities or between localities-are best able to produce offspring on xylose-containing medium.     

枸杞瘿螨姬小蜂的生物学特性

枸杞瘿螨姬小蜂Cirrospilus eniophyesiYang(新种)是枸杞瘿螨Aceria pallidaKeifer的重要天敌,以幼虫在虫瘿内取食枸杞瘿螨的成虫和若虫。在(25±1)℃下,该蜂完成1个世代需16~21d。成虫寿命及产卵量与补充营养有关,取食10%蜂蜜水的雌虫寿命为(6.94±0.67)d,雄虫为(5.14±0.49)d。不进行补充营养的雌雄成虫寿命分别为(1.96±0.27)d和(1.06±0.29)d;补充10%蜂蜜水和水可显著提高产卵量,每雌平均产卵量分别为(29.13±6.12)粒和(23.14±3.16)粒,产卵高峰期在羽化后的第2天。成虫羽化时间多集中在6:00~8:00am和4:00~6:00pm,羽化当天即可交尾。枸杞瘿螨姬小蜂自然种群消长与寄主虫口密度相关,在6月底7月初寄生率达到83.3%。