四种水库消落带植物对水淹环境的适应性研究

研究了百花湖消落带四种优势植物双穗雀稗(Paspalum distichum)、空心莲子草(Alternanthera philoxeroides)、牛鞭草(Hemarthria altissima)和狗牙根(Cynodon dactylon)在模拟水淹环境下的生长指标和叶绿素含量,以期了解其对水淹环境的适应特征。结果表明:1) 水淹条件下,双穗雀稗、空心莲子草和牛鞭草生长加剧,狗牙根生长缓慢,四种植物损失了不适应全淹环境的分枝和叶片。2)双穗雀稗、牛鞭草和狗牙根表现为茎的生长,空心莲子草表现为茎和分枝的生长。植株顶端冒出水面后,双穗雀稗、空心莲子草和牛鞭草叶的生长加剧。3)四种植物的叶绿素a、b的含量降低,叶绿素b降低比叶绿素a更显著,叶绿素a/b值显著升高。植株顶端冒出水面后,双穗雀稗、空心莲子草和牛鞭草叶绿素a、b含量显著升高,叶绿素a/b值显著降低。4)经过不断地适应和进化后,四种植物能更好地适应水淹环境。     

部分暖季型草坪草品种(系)在沿海滩涂的生长适应性及其对土壤盐度的影响

采用8个指标(密度、质地、均一性、盖度、耐旱性、萎蔫率、烧伤率及生长量)对12个暖季型草坪草品种(系)在江苏省沿海滩涂上的生长适应性进行了评价,并以电导率为指标分析了12个品种(系)对种植地土壤盐度的影响.结果表明,12个品种(系)8个评价指标的变异系数为32.51%～40.76%,差异不大;12个品种(系)在8个评价指标方面的排序不一致,但总体上各指标中得分最高的前3位均包含了海雀稗'P006'(Paspalum vaginatum 'P006' )和沟叶结缕草'Z014' (Zoysia matrella 'Z014' ),而得分最低的均为狗牙根[Cynodon dactylon (L. ) Pers. ]的品种(系).12个品种(系)中,海雀稗'P006'综合排名第1,生长适应性最好;沟叶结缕草'Z014'、结缕草'Z080'(Z. japonica 'Z080' )和中华结缕草'Z008' (Z. sinica 'Z008' )的综合排名分别为第2、第3和第4位,生长适应性也较好;而8个狗牙根品种(系)的得分排在第5至第12位,生长适应性较差.从2006年7月至2007年11月,12个品种(系)种植地的土壤平均电导率均随时间的延长出现一定的波动,但总体上呈现逐渐下降的趋势并达到相对一致的水平,且均明显小于空白地的土壤平均电导率.不同品种(系)对种植地土壤的脱盐作用有一定的差异,其中,狗牙根'C807'的脱盐效应最佳,在所有供试品种(系)中排序第1;而海雀稗'P006'和沟叶结缕草'Z014'也具有一定的脱盐效应,在所有供试品种(系)中分别排在第6和第7位.综合分析结果显示,海雀稗'P006'和沟叶结缕草'Z014' 对盐碱地的适应性较强并具有一定的脱盐效应,可作为滩涂绿化和盐碱地土壤改良的优良草种;而狗牙根'C807'可以作为滩涂绿化和土壤改良的先锋草种.     

不同基质中4种电网塔基地被植物种子发芽与幼苗生长研究

以宽叶雀稗(Paspalum wettsteinii)、百喜草(P. notatum)、狗牙根(Cynodon dactylon)和猪屎豆(Crotalaria pallida) 4种植物种子为材料,研究其在沙土、园土、红壤、建筑废弃土、碎石块等基质中萌发和幼苗生长情况,筛选4种植物最适栽培基质,以期为电网基塔下及四周裸露地面复绿提供指导。结果表明,沙土适于宽叶雀稗、百喜草、狗牙根种子发芽;猪屎豆在5种基质中均不发芽。宽叶雀稗适于红壤生长;百喜草、狗牙根适于园土生长;宽叶雀稗为沙土、建筑废弃土和碎石块上最适合栽种的植物。通过灰色关联度分析,3种植物苗期生长的综合排序为δ宽叶雀稗(0.553) > δ狗牙根(0.522) > δ百喜草(0.436),故在5种基质中,宽叶雀稗幼苗生长综合表现最佳。     

长期深淹对三峡库区三种草本植物的恢复生长及光合特性的影响

硬秆子草（Capillipedium assimile）、双穗雀稗（Paspalum distichum）和狗牙根（Cynodon dactylon）在经受与三峡水库水位运行节律基本一致的水淹时间和水淹持续时期,但淹水深度（0、5、15和25m）不同的处理后,对其进行了恢复生长和光合特性研究。结果表明：（1）3种草本植物之间相比,狗牙根的存活率最高,所有处理植株存活率达到了100％;硬秆子草和双穗雀稗随着水淹深度的增加,存活率呈降低趋势,5in深处理存活率达到了100％,15in和25m深处理存活率在80％以上。（2）3种草本植物恢复生长后的叶片净光合速率Pn、蒸腾速率Tr、气孔导度Gs、水分利用效率WUE和表观CO2利用效率CUEapp与未淹对照相比没有显著差异;不同物种相同水淹处理之间比较,狗牙根的各光合指标显著高于硬秆子草和双穗雀稗。（3）结合三峡库区消落带植被恢复物种筛选的基本条件和本试验不同处理植株的恢复生长及其光合特性的研究,结果表明,硬秆子草、双穗雀稗和狗牙根是能够忍耐长期深淹胁迫的、适宜于三峡库区消落带植被恢复与重建的优良物种。三者之间的耐淹能力从大到小依次为：狗牙根〉硬秆子草〉双穗雀稗。     

鸡眼草水浸提液对4种草坪草的化感作用

为探讨鸡眼草(Kummerowia striata)不同部位、不同浓度水浸提液对高羊茅(Festuca arundinacea)、黑麦草(Lolium perenne)、狗牙根(Cynodon dactylon)、白三叶(Trifolium repens)等4种草坪草的化感效应和作用规律,采用培养皿纸床法,以蒸馏水为对照,研究鸡眼草剪碎的植株、未剪碎的植株、叶、茎、根、地上部分0.012 5、0.025、0.05 g/mL 3个不同浓度的水浸提液对高羊茅、黑麦草、狗牙根、白三叶的种子发芽率、发芽速率、幼根长、幼苗高的化感作用。结果表明,鸡眼草水浸提液对高羊茅、黑麦草、狗牙根、白三叶4种受体植物种子的萌发及幼苗生长均有较强的化感抑制作用,且对种子发芽率作用强弱顺序为:狗牙根白三叶黑麦草高羊茅,对种子发芽速率作用强弱顺序为:黑麦草高羊茅狗牙根白三叶,对幼苗苗高作用强弱顺序为:黑麦草白三叶狗牙根高羊茅,对幼苗根长作用强弱顺序为:白三叶黑麦草狗牙根高羊茅。对4种受体植物的综合化感效应以高羊茅最弱,黑麦草、狗牙根、白三叶较为相近。4种受体植物所受到的抑制作用均随着水浸提液浓度的增加而增强,在同一浓度不同部位水浸提液处理下,叶、整株(剪碎)水浸提液对4种受体植物抑制作用比根、茎、整株(未剪碎)及地上部分水浸提液强。高羊茅、黑麦草、狗牙根3种草坪草受0.05 g/mL鸡眼草叶水浸提液的化感抑制作用最强,白三叶则受0.05 g/mL鸡眼草整株(剪碎)水浸提液的化感抑制作用最强。     

黄河三角洲大穗结缕草解剖结构的研究

目前对于草坪草的抗性研究多数集中在其生理方面的变化,而结合各抗性品种营养器官结构进行比较研究却报道较少。从采集自山东省无棣县沿海滩涂的大穗结缕草的营养器官解剖结构和微形态特征的研究中分析它的耐盐、耐寒、耐旱、耐践踏和弹性好的原因,从形态解剖的角度来认识大穗结缕草的优良特性。     

虉草营养器官解剖结构与抗旱耐涝性及利用之间的关系

为了从显微结构上进一步探讨虉草(Phalaris arundinacea L.)的抗旱耐涝性及与利用的关系,于2011年采用常规石蜡切片技术,对其根、茎叶3种营养器官进行解剖观察。结果表明,虉草根的结构自外而内依次为表皮、皮层、维管束鞘、初生韧皮部和初生木质部;茎由表皮、基本组织和维管束构成;叶片内部结构可分为表皮、叶肉和叶脉3部分。根皮层大的细胞间隙和气腔,初生木质部的后生大导管和茎基本组织解体形成的髓腔都是虉草良好的通气组织,是其耐水淹的主要显微特征。茎、叶片角质化的表皮和叶表皮所含的丰富泡状细胞组是虉草具有抗旱性的主要解剖结构特征。叶肉细胞排列紧密且只有少量气孔分布于叶片下表皮,这样的结构可减少蒸腾;叶肉细胞富含叶绿体,增强光合作用,获得更多的同化产物,确保了植株在干旱条件下也有足够的光合产物来维持正常的生理活动。茎、叶维管束部分大量的木纤维起到支撑作用。虉草根的皮层和维管柱部分、茎的基本组织和维管束部分、叶的叶脉部分都含有大面积的厚壁细胞,厚壁细胞中含有丰富的粗纤维和木质素。丰富的粗纤维、木质素等成分则是虉草能成为新能源燃料植物的必备条件。     

新疆2种盐生补血草营养器官的解剖学研究

采用叶片离析法和石蜡切片法,对生长在新疆盐渍环境中的大叶补血草[Limonium gmelinii(Willd.) Kuntze]和耳叶补血草[Limoniumotolepis(Schrenk) Kuntze]的营养器官解剖学特征进行了观察研究.结果显示,2种补血草属典型泌盐植物,茎和叶片表皮上分布有多细胞组成的盐腺;叶表皮细胞排列紧密,其外切向壁增厚,表皮外还被有厚的角质层;上下表皮都有气孔,气孔与表皮细胞平齐,为不等型气孔;其中大叶补血草为异面叶,而耳叶补血草为等面叶.2种补血草茎中都散生有多轮维管束;大叶补血草根中还有大量通气组织等.研究结果表明,2种补血草的解剖结构表现出与其生境相适应的特征.     

狗牙根与非洲狗牙根形态鉴别性状的筛选

对10个狗牙根〔Cynodon dactylon(L.)Pers.〕和2个非洲狗牙根(C.transvaalensis Burtt-Davy)种源的13个外部形态性状进行了实地观测和统计分析。结果表明,与狗牙根相比,非洲狗牙根的叶片宽度较窄,穗支数较少,小穗较长,节间直径较细,穗支长度较短,差异显著;非洲狗牙根的叶片、葡匐茎及柱头的颜色与狗牙根有明显不同,因此,叶片宽度、节间直径、穗支数、穗支长度、小穗长度、叶片色泽、匍匐茎色泽和柱头色泽8个外部形态性状可作为鉴别这2个种的形态学指标。     

杂交狗牙根不同品种(系)叶片解剖结构及耐磨性研究

以7个杂交狗牙根品种(系)的叶片进行解剖研究,结果表明,各品种(系)均具禾本科C₄植物叶片典型结构,其独特处是:中脉结构与平行脉相似;中脉维管束、平行脉大维管束的维管束鞘内侧韧皮部外有一层纤维细胞;泡状细胞外壁很少角化。综合比较7个品种(系)叶片的角质层厚度、机械组织含量、维管束排列密度,得出叶片耐磨性综合指数,可作为耐践踏性的指标之一。此指数最高的品种是"TifSport"。     

闽南地区常用草坪草种及建坪养管技术

概述闽南地区5种常用草坪草种(沟叶结缕草、细叶结缕草、狗牙根、假俭草和地毯草)的生长特性、用途及应用前景。并针对生产上存在的草种品种单一、植前基础处理粗放及重种植轻养管等问题,提出草坪建植(铺植、散植和播种法)及植后的养护管理技术。     

Species and cultivar influences on survival and parasitism of fall armyworm

Interactions between host plant resistance and biological control may benefit or hinder pest management efforts. Turfgrass cultivars have rarely been tested for extrinsic resistance characteristics such as occurrence and performance of beneficial arthropods on plant genotypes with resistance to known turf pests. Parasitism of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), among six turfgrass genotypes was evaluated. The six grasses tested [Sea Isle-1 and 561-79 seashore paspalum, Paspalum vaginatum Swartz; TifSport and TifEagle hybrid Bermuda grass, Cynodon dactylon (L.) x C. transvaalensis (Burtt-Davy); and Cavalier and Palisades zoysiagrass, Zoysia japonica von Steudel and Z. matrella (L.) Merrill, respectively] represented a range in resistance to S. frugiperda. Differential recovery of larvae released as first instars reflected this gradient in resistance of Cavalier > or = Palisades > or = TifSport = TifEagle > or = 561- = Sea Isle-1 Larval recovery (percentage of initial number released) was greatest in May, less in July and August, and least in October, probably reflecting the increase in activity of on-site predators and disease pressure. Parasitism of the fall armyworm by the braconid Aleiodes laphygmae Viereck varied among turfgrass genotypes. Parasitism was greatest during July. In total, 20,400 first instars were placed in the field; 2,368 were recovered; 468 parasitoids were subsequently reared; 92.2% were A. laphygmae. In the field, the greatest percentage of reduction in S. frugiperda larvae by A. laphygmae occurred on the armyworm-susceptible seashore paspalums (51.9% on Sea Isle-1 in July). Cotesia marginiventris Cresson and Meteorus sp. also were reared from collected larvae. No parasitoids were reared from larvae collected from resistant Cavalier zoysiagrass. A. laphygmae and C. marginiventris were reared from larvae collected from the other five grass cultivars. No parasitoids of older larvae or pupae were observed.     

Growth Analysis and Reproductive Allocation of Japanese Forbs and Grasses in Relation to Organ Toughness under Trampling

Abstract: The growth and reproduction of Japanese forbs ( Artemisia princeps and Piantago asiatica ) and grasses ( Digitaria ad-scendens and Eleusine indica ) treated to 25 tramplings (3 g m^-2) per week were investigated in relation to the toughness (tensile strength) of organs. The perennial erect forb, A. princeps , was the most sensitive to trampling in terms of a remarkable depression of plant size and relative growth rate (RGR). RGR and net assimilation rate (NAR) of trampled A. princeps were negative. This was promoted by a loss of organs due to a reduced toughness of organs following trampling. In contrast to this species which did not flower after trampling, the perennial rosette forb, P. asiatica , maintained its plant biomass, NAR, RGR and reproduction under trampling because of tougher organs. However, NAR without trampling was lower in P. asiatica due to a larger leaf dry mass per leaf area (LMA), which could contribute to leaf toughness under trampling. The annual tussock grass, D. adscendens , which has a greater RGR than that of another grass, E. indica , without trampling was intolerant to trampling in terms of decreased biomass and RGR under trampling due to more sensitive organs, although it maintained an ability to reproduce. On the other hand, E. indica showed a marked trampling tolerance, with hardly reduced plant biomass and RGR. This species showed increased toughness of organs when trampled and frequently formed inflorescences in the growing period and produced similar biomass allocation to reproductive organs to untrarnpled plants. Between the grasses, RGR without trampling was slower in E. indica , partly because of its larger LMA. These results suggest that plants face a dilemma between trampling tolerance and efficient assimilative capacity and/or growth rate.     

Detection of Biogenic Silica in Leaf Blade, Leaf Sheath, and Stem of Bermuda Grass (Cynodon dactylon) Using LIBS and Phytolith Analysis

Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has been used to perform in situ analysis of major and minor elements present in the different parts of the Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon). In situ, point detection/analysis of the elements in plants without any sample preparation has been demonstrated. LIBS spectra of the different parts (leaf blade, leaf sheath and stem) of fresh C. dactylon plant have been recorded to study the pattern of silica deposition in its different parts. Atomic lines of Si, Mg, Ca, C, Al, Zn, N, Sr, etc. have been observed in the LIBS spectra of the C. dactylon. A close observation of LIBS spectra of the different parts of the plants shows that silica concentration is greater in leaf blades than leaf sheaths and stems. The results obtained with LIBS analysis are also compared with the number density of phytoliths deposited in different parts of C. dactylon. It is observed that the highest silicified cell frequency is present in leaf blades followed by leaf sheaths and stems which is in close agreement with LIBS analysis.     

Reproduction of Meloidogyne marylandi and M. incognita on several Poaceae

The susceptibility of 22 plant species to Meloidogyne marylandi and M. incognita was examined in three greenhouse experiments. Inoculum of M. marylandi was eggs from cultures maintained on Zoysia matrella "Cavalier" or Cynodon dactylon x C. trasvaalensis "Tifdwarf". Inoculum of M. incognita was eggs from cultures maintained on Solanum lycopersicum 'Rutgers'. In each host test the inoculum density was 2,000 nematode eggs/pot. None of the three dicot species tested (Gossypium hirsutum, Arachis hypogaea, and S. lycopersicum) were hosts for M. marylandi but, as expected, M. incognita had high levels of reproduction on G. hirsutum and S. lycopersicum. Meloidogyne marylandi reproduced on all of the 19 grass species (Poaceae) tested but reproduction varied greatly (P = 0.05) among these hosts. The following grasses were identified for the first time as hosts for M. marylandi: Buchloe dactyloides (buffalograss), Echinochloa colona (jungle rice), Eragostis curvula (weeping lovegrass), Paspalum dilatatum (dallisgrass), P. notatum (bahiagrass), Sorghastrum, nutans (indiangrass), Tripsacum dactyloides (eastern gamagrass), and Zoysia matrella (zoysiagrass). No reproduction of M. incognita was observed on B. dactyloides, Cyndon dactylon (common bermudagrass), E. curvula, P. vaginatum (seashore paspalum), S. nutans, T. dactyloides, Z. matrella or Z. japonica. Reproduction of M. incognita was less than reproduction of M. marylandi on the other grass species, except for the Zea mays inbred line B73 on which M. incognita had greater reproduction than did M. marylandi (P = 0.05) and Stenotaphrum secundatum (St. Augustinegrass) on which M. incognita and M. marylandi had similar levels of reproduction.     

类芦和狗牙根内生固氮菌初步研究

为探索水土保持禾草的固氮能力,利用乙炔还原法(ARA)对类芦(Neyraudia reynaudiana)和狗牙根(Cynodon dactylon)植株内生固氮菌的固氮酶活性进行研究.结果表明:在类芦茎部和狗牙根叶片中存在高固氮酶活性的内生固氮菌群;这些菌群在无氮培养基上经划线分离纯化得到40个菌株,其中26株有微弱固氮酶活性,14株检测不到固氮酶活性;从类芦茎部和狗牙根叶片中筛选到的固氮菌群在兼性厌氧的环境中有较高的固氮酶活性,且在石蜡油密封条件下,两者的固氮酶活性均最高;在不改变自然界微生物之间的协同关系情况下,混合菌群均具有较高的固氮酶活性,而人为组配混合得到的菌群固氮酶活性较低. reynaudiana)和狗牙根(Cynodondxtylon)植株内生固氮菌的固氮酶活性进行研究.结果表明:在类芦茎部和狗牙根叶片中存在高固氮酶活性的内生固氮菌群;这些菌群在无氮培养基上经划线分离纯化得到40个菌株,其中26株有微弱固氮酶活性,14株检测不到固氮酶活性;从类芦茎部和狗牙根叶片中筛选到的固氮菌群在兼性厌氧的环境中有较高的固氮酶活性,且在石蜡油密封条件下,两者的固氮酶活性均最高;在不改变自然界微生物之间的协同关系 况下,混合菌群均具有较高的固氮酶     

Drought tolerance of selected Eragrostis species correlates with leaf tensile properties

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Previous studies on grass leaf tensile properties (behaviour during mechanical stress) have focused on agricultural applications such as resistance to trampling and palatability; no investigations have directly addressed mechanical properties during water stress, and hence these are the subject of this study. METHODS: Critical (lethal) relative water contents were determined for three species of grass in the genus Eragrostis varying in their tolerance to drought. Measurements were taken for leaf tensile strength, elastic modulus, toughness and failure load under different conditions of hydration, and light microscopy and histochemical analyses were undertaken. KEY RESULTS: Leaf tensile strength of fully hydrated leaves for the drought-intolerant E. capensis, the moderately drought-tolerant E. tef and the drought-tolerant E. curvula correlated well with drought tolerance (critical relative water content). Eragrostis curvula had higher tensile strength values than E. tef, which in turn had higher values than E. capensis. Measurements on the drought-tolerant grass E. curvula when fully hydrated and when dried to below its turgor loss point showed that tensile strength, toughness and the elastic modulus all increased under conditions of turgor loss, while the failure load remained unchanged. Additional tests of 100 mm segments along the lamina of E. curvula showed that tensile strength, toughness and the elastic modulus all decreased with distance from the base of the lamina, while again the failure load was unaffected. This decrease in mechanical parameters correlated with a reduction in the size of the vascular bundles and the amount of lignification, as viewed in lamina cross-sections. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm that leaf mechanical properties are affected by both water status and position along the lamina, and suggest a positive correlation between leaf internal architecture, tensile strength, cell wall chemistry and tolerance to dehydration for grasses.     

Adaptive strategies of perennial grasses in South American savannas

Abstract. Morpho-fimctional features of perennial grasses in South American savannas are considered as adaptive strategies to cope with stress and disturbance factors of savanna environments. The tussock growth form, annual patterns of vegetative growth and reproductive phenology, allocation of carbon and nutrients, and accumulation of standing dead phytomass at the end of the dry season, are discussed in relation to water economy, resistance to drought, photosynthetic rates, growth rhythms, regrowth after drought and fire, seasonal translocation of critical nutrients and carbohydrates, and the total nutrient budget of the grass layer. Different strategies combining various morphological patterns, phenological alternatives and mechanisms for resisting drought and fire exist within the grass flora of each savanna community. The lack of adaptive responses to grazing by large herbivores is a major distinction from African savanna grasses. Many African grasses, either introduced in pastures or colonizing disturbed savannas, do show positive responses to defoliation, including compensatory growth and enhanced photosynthetic rates. Some guidelines for further research are suggested in order to disclose the mechanisms underlying this different behaviour of native and introduced savanna grasses.     

Fungal Symbionts Alter Plant Drought Response

Grassland productivity is often primarily limited by water availability, and therefore, grasslands may be especially sensitive to climate change. Fungal symbionts can mediate plant drought response by enhancing drought tolerance and avoidance, but these effects have not been quantified across grass species. We performed a factorial meta-analysis of previously published studies to determine how arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and endophytic fungal symbionts affect growth of grasses under drought. We then examined how the effect of fungal symbionts on plant growth was influenced by biotic (plant photosynthetic pathway) and abiotic (level of drought) factors. We also measured the phylogenetic signal of fungal symbionts on grass growth under control and drought conditions. Under drought conditions, grasses colonized by AM fungi grew larger than those without mycorrhizal symbionts. The increased growth of grasses conferred from fungal symbionts was greatest at the lowest soil moisture levels. Furthermore, under both drought and control conditions, C3 grasses colonized by AM fungi grew larger than C3 grasses without symbionts, but the biomass of C4 grasses was not affected by AM fungi. Endophytes did not increase plant biomass overall under any treatment. However, there was a phylogenetically conserved increase in plant biomass in grasses colonized by endophytes. Grasses and their fungal symbionts seem to interact within a context-dependent symbiosis, varying with biotic and abiotic conditions. Because plant–fungal symbioses significantly alter plant drought response, including these responses could improve our ability to predict grassland functioning under global change.     

Short photoperiod inhibits winter growth of subtropical grasses

Grass development is influenced by length of photoperiod, but no direct measurements under natural conditions exist on mass accumulation in response to photoperiod by subtropical grass species. Grasslands of the subtropics are a major resource, but their growth is inhibited substantially during the short-photoperiod months. This research was designed to examine the consequences on grass production under field conditions when the limitation of short photoperiod is artificially removed. Lights, which extended the daylength to 15 h, were placed over plots of four subtropical forage grasses representing three species (Paspalum notatum Flugge; Cynodon dactylon L.; Cynodon nlemfuensis Vanderyst) to measure their mass accumulation in response to extended photoperiod in a 2-year experiment. Forage yields in all grasses at 5-week harvests during the time of shortest daylength were increased up to 6.2-fold more than the yield under the natural daylength. For the 4.5-month period of shortest daylength in each year, forage yields were increased for all grasses with one grass having a yield increase of 3.6-fold under the extended photoperiod as compared to natural daylength. These results demonstrated that selection of grasses that are insensitive to photoperiod could substantially increase forage yield of subtropical grasslands to benefit animal production and enhance carbon sequestration.