氮添加对亚热带山地杜鹃灌丛土壤呼吸的影响

为探究灌丛生态系统对大气氮沉降的响应,2013年1月至2014年9月,对湖南大围山杜鹃(Rhododendron simsii)灌丛群落进行了短期模拟氮沉降试验,施氮浓度分别为0(CK)、2(LN)、5(MN)和10(HN)g·m~(–2)·a~(–1)。利用LI-8100土壤碳通量测量系统测定土壤呼吸速率,并测定不同氮处理下根系生物量增量和凋落物量。结果表明:该地区土壤呼吸呈现明显的季节动态,夏季土壤呼吸最强,冬季最弱。CK、LN、MN和HN处理样地每年通过土壤呼吸释放的CO_2量分别为2.37、2.79、2.26和2.30 kgCO_2·m~(–2)。CK、LN、MN和HN处理下,年平均土壤呼吸速率分别为1.71、2.01、1.63和1.66μmol CO_2·m~(–2)·s~(–1),LN处理样地的年均土壤呼吸速率与对照样地相比增加了17.25%,MN和HN处理则比对照样地稍低。施氮增加了根系生物量增量和凋落物量,但没有达到显著水平。土壤呼吸速率与5 cm土壤温度呈显著指数相关关系,与5 cm土壤的含水量呈显著线性相关关系。CK、LN、MN和HN处理下,土壤呼吸的温度敏感性(Q_(10))值分别为3.96、3.60、3.71和3.51,表明施氮降低了温度敏感性。氮添加导致的根系生物量增加是引起该区域土壤呼吸速率变化的一个重要原因。     

模拟氮沉降凋落物管理对樟树人工林土壤呼吸的影响

以湖南省植物园樟树人工林为对象,研究了模拟氮沉降下,不同凋落物处理对土壤呼吸的影响。设置4个施氮水平,分别为CK(0 kg N hm~(-2)a~(-1))、LN(50 kg N hm~(-2)a~(-1))、NM(150 kg N hm~(-2)a~(-1))以及HN(300 kg N hm~(-2)a~(-1));凋落物处理分别为去除凋落物、添加凋落物以及凋落物对照组。经过为期2年的观测研究,结果表明:(1)模拟氮沉降不同凋落物处理下,土壤温度呈现显著的季节性变化,但不存在显著差异;土壤湿度呈现显著的波动性变化,施氮及凋落物管理对土壤温度无影响。土壤湿度仅受凋落物管理的影响。在不同施氮水平下,去除凋落物的土壤湿度与加倍凋落物的土壤湿度均存在显著差异性。(2)模拟氮沉降不同凋落物处理下,土壤呼吸均呈现显著的季节性变化,最大值出现在6—8月;最小值出现在1月,且在生长季期间(4—8月),不同处理下土壤呼吸存在显著差异。(3)施氮对土壤呼吸表现为抑制作用,添加凋落物对土壤呼吸起促进作用,去除凋落物对土壤呼吸起抑制作用。(4)在凋落物对照组中,LN、MN、HN较CK相比,土壤呼吸速率年均值分别降低了35.4%、30.6%、36.8%,且各施氮水平与CK存在显著差异(P0.05);添加凋落物处理下,LN、MN、HN处理较CK相比,土壤呼吸速率年均值土壤呼吸分别降低了23.2%、15.8%、14.7%。去除凋落物处理下,LN、MN、HN较CK相比,土壤呼吸速率年均值分别降低了3.5%、0.5%、-11.6%。且添加或去除凋落物均能削弱施氮对土壤呼吸的抑制作用,且这种作用随着施氮水平的增加而增大。(5)土壤呼吸与5 cm处土壤温度存在显著相关性(P0.05),土壤温度可解释土壤呼吸变异的47.76%—72.61%;与土壤湿度呈现正相关,但未达到显著相关水平(P0.05)。     

施氮对湿地松(Pinus elliottii)林土壤呼吸和相关因子的影响

人类活动引起陆地生态系统氮输入水平持续升高,对全球碳循环产生影响。为探究氮素对土壤呼吸的影响,2010年6月至2012年1月,采用氮添加试验对亚热带湿地松林的土壤呼吸进行了研究。试验共设置4种氮添加水平:对照CK,0 g m~(-2)a~(-1);低氮LN,5g m~(-2)a~(-1);中氮MN,15 g m~(-2)a~(-1);高氮HN,30 g m~(-2)a~(-1);每月上、下旬采用Li-cor 8100测定土壤呼吸速率。结果表明:(1)氮添加对土壤呼吸有着显著的抑制作用,LN、MN和HN处理的土壤呼吸年累积量较CK处理分别降低了26.6%、23.7%和29.5%,而施氮处理间的土壤呼吸无显著差异;(2)林分生长期间(6-9月),施氮第1年的土壤呼吸所受抑制作用显著高于第2年同期的水平,显示施氮对土壤呼吸的影响随时间的推移而降低;(3)湿地松林土壤呼吸存在明显的季节动态,最大值出现在8月(356.32 mgCO_2 m~(-2)h~(-1)),最小值出现在1月(99.12 mg CO_2 m~(-2)h~(-1)),施氮处理并不改变土壤呼吸的季节性变化规律;(4)CK处理林分中,土壤呼吸与土壤温度间存在极显著的指数关系,而与土壤湿度无显著相关。施氮处理没有改变土壤呼吸与土壤温度之间的相互关系,但抑制了土壤呼吸的温度敏感性(Q_(10));(5)施氮处理显著减少了林分凋落物量、土壤微生物碳、氮量,并轻微抑制了细根生物量,这些改变导致了土壤呼吸的下降。上述结果表明施氮会显著抑制亚热带湿地松林的土壤呼吸速率,而这种抑制作用将随着时间的推移而降低。     

模拟氮沉降下去除凋落物对太岳山油松林土壤呼吸的影响

凋落物是土壤呼吸的重要碳源,氮沉降将改变其输入数量和质量,进而影响土壤呼吸。为揭示氮沉降和去除凋落物对土壤呼吸的影响,以太岳山油松林为研究对象,对林地分别作2种凋落物处理:去除凋落物(LR)、对照(CK1),设计4个施氮水平:不施氮(CK2,0 kg N·hm-2·a-1),低氮(LN,50 kg N·hm-2·a-1),中氮(MN,100 kg N·hm-2·a-1)和高氮(HN,150 kg N·hm-2·a-1),于2010—2012年生长季测定土壤呼吸速率的动态变化,并分析土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度、土壤湿度、土壤微生物生物量C、N的关系。结果表明:随着观测年限的推移,模拟氮沉降对对照处理的土壤呼吸速率、去凋处理的土壤呼吸速率、凋落物层呼吸速率的促进作用逐渐减弱。去除凋落物使土壤呼吸速率降低了29.0%,施氮减小了去除凋落物后土壤呼吸速率的变化幅度。土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度均呈显著指数相关(P0.05),土壤温度解释了土壤呼吸速率变异的37.3%~62.2%,去除凋落物降低了模型决定系数R2;以土壤温度和土壤水分构建的复合关系方程拟合效果均好于单因子模型,土壤温度和水分共同解释了土壤呼吸季节变化的67.6%~85.6%,并且施氮降低了去凋处理的复合模型决定系数R2,而对对照处理没有显著影响。施氮提高了土壤微生物生物量C、N,并且土壤微生物生物量C、N与土壤呼吸速率呈显著正相关(P0.05)。说明氮沉降、凋落物是影响油松林土壤CO2通量的两个重要因子。     

樟树人工林凋落物养分含量及归还量对氮沉降的响应

氮沉降的持续增加对陆地生态系统的健康发展构成严重威胁,森林是陆地生态系统中重要的组成部分,大量的氮沉降对其结构和功能造成严重影响。凋落物是森林生态系统养分循环的重要组成部分,它对土壤肥力、森林生态系统养分循环等方面具有重要作用。为了探讨亚热带常绿阔叶森林凋落物对氮沉降增加的响应,在湖南省森林植物园以樟树人工林为研究对象进行模拟氮沉降的实验,实验设置4种氮添加水平CK(0g N m~(-2)a~(-1),对照)、LN(5g N m~(-2)a~(-1)),MN(15g N m~(-2)a~(-1)),HN(30g N m~(-2)a~(-1)),研究氮沉降对樟树林年凋落物量、凋落物养分含量以及归还量的影响。结果表明:不同施氮水平下(CK、LN、MN、HN),樟树林凋落物的年凋落量分别为(4.53±0.32)t hm~(-2)a~(-1)、(3.95±0.28)t hm~(-2)a~(-1)、(3.56±0.41)t hm~(-2)a~(-1)、(4.46±0.48)t hm~(-2)a~(-1),施氮抑制了樟树林的凋落量,且低、中氮处理下差异显著(P0.05);施氮处理后凋落物的养分含量大小顺序为:CNCaKMg,凋落物的碳含量没有显著变化,但氮含量都有所增加,因此,施氮降低了樟树凋落物各组分的C/N比;凋落物中元素的年归还量大小顺序表现为:CNCaKMg,施氮处理对凋落物C、K、Ca、Mg归还量有抑制作用,但对凋落物N归还量表现为促进作用。     

氮沉降对黄河三角洲芦苇湿地土壤呼吸的影响

2012年6月至2012年10月, 对黄河三角洲芦苇(Phragmites australis)湿地进行了模拟氮沉降试验, 氮沉降水平分别为对照(CK, 0 kg N·hm^-2·a^-1)、低氮(LN, 50 kg N·hm^-2·a^-1)和高氮(HN, 100 kg N·hm^-2·a^-1)。利用LI-8100土壤碳通量测量系统测定土壤呼吸速率。结果表明, 氮沉降促进了芦苇湿地土壤呼吸作用, LN和HN处理使芦苇生长季(6-10月)平均土壤呼吸速率比CK分别提高19%和58%。积水改变了芦苇湿地土壤呼吸日动态。地面无积水时, 各处理土壤呼吸日动态均呈单峰型曲线; 地面有积水时, 土壤呼吸日动态峰值推后或无单峰型波动规律。积水影响土壤呼吸作用对温度的响应。地面无积水时, 各处理土壤呼吸速率均与气温呈极显著的正指数相关关系, 气温分别解释了CK、LN和HN处理下土壤呼吸季节变化的69.9%、64.5%和59.9%; 地面有积水时, 各处理土壤呼吸与气温相关性不显著。CK、LN和HN处理下土壤呼吸温度敏感性系数Q₁₀值分别为1.68、1.75和1.68, 表明LN处理增强了土壤呼吸温度敏感性, HN处理对其影响不显著。     

模拟氮沉降对天山云杉细根分解及其养分释放的影响

采用野外模拟试验,设计4种氮处理——对照(不施氮,CK)、低氮(施氮5kg·hm-2·a-1,LN)、中氮(施氮10kg·hm-2·a-1,MN)、高氮(施氮15kg·hm-2·a-1,HN),研究氮沉降对天山云杉细根分解及养分释放的影响。结果表明:(1)不同氮处理分解2年后天山云杉细根残留率依次为74.044%(HN)、71.967%(MN)、68.156%(CK)、61.933%(LN),且差异显著。(2)天山云杉的细根月分解速率在试验前期不同氮处理下规律不明显;而在试验后期呈现为对照中氮低氮高氮。(3)4种氮处理下天山云杉细根分解50%需要的时间依次为3.31年(LN)、3.67年(CK)、4.28年(MN)、4.64年(HN),分解95%需要的时间依次为14.39年(LN)、15.93年(CK)、18.58年(MN)和20.17年(HN)。(4)天山云杉细根C元素迁移模式总体表现为直接释放,N元氮为富集-释放模式,残留率呈现波动式下降趋势。(5)不同氮处理下天山云杉细根分解率与C元素浓度间均呈线性负相关关系;对照和低氮处理下,天山云杉细根分解率与N元素浓度间均为线性负相关关系,中氮和高氮处理下,细根分解率随N元素浓度的增加呈先增加后降低的趋势。     

氮添加对中亚热带杜鹃灌丛凋落物生产和叶分解的影响

凋落物的生产和分解是生态系统养分循环的重要过程,受到大气氮沉降的深刻影响。但目前相关研究主要集中于森林和草地生态系统,氮沉降对灌丛生态系统凋落物养分归还的影响规律尚不清楚。因此选择亚热带分布广泛的杜鹃灌丛为研究对象,进行了为期两年的模拟氮沉降试验。试验设置4个处理:对照(CK, 0 g m-2 a-1)、低氮(LN, 2 g m-2 a-1)、中氮(MN, 5 g m-2 a-1)和高氮(HN, 10 g m-2 a-1)。结果显示:CK、LN、MN和HN 4种处理下,群落年平均凋落物量分别为(1936.54±358.9)、(2541.89±112.5)、(2342.97±519.8)、(2087.22±391.8) kg/hm²,LN、MN和HN处理样地的凋落量分别比对照样地高出32.68%、21.16%和7.93%;凋落叶、花果、凋落枝和其他组分占总凋落量的比例分别为75.75%、15.09%、7.70%和1.45%,不同浓度氮处理下各组分的凋落量均高于对照样地;凋落物组分表现出明显的季节动态:凋落叶在10—11月份达到峰值,凋落枝在10月份达到峰值,花果凋落物则在5月份凋落量最高,不同氮处理下凋落物的季节动态基本一致;白檀凋落叶分解速率显著高于杜鹃,二者分解95%所需时间分别为5.08—11.11 a和7.69—17.65 a,施氮使白檀凋落叶分解周期比对照样地缩短18.18%—54.28%;凋落叶分解过程中,N元素表现为富集-释放模式,P元素表现为富集模式。研究表明,氮添加能够促进群落中白檀凋落叶分解及N、P元素的释放,说明施氮可以调节凋落叶养分释放模式,对灌丛生态系统的养分循环具有调控作用。     

氮添加和凋落物去除对黔中喀斯特地区柳杉人工林土壤呼吸的影响

凋落物是土壤呼吸的主要碳源,日益增加的大气氮沉降通过改变森林凋落物的输入与分解影响土壤呼吸。为揭示氮沉降及凋落物管理对森林土壤呼吸及其组分的影响,以贵州省国有扎佐林场15年生柳杉人工林为研究对象,设置4个氮添加处理:对照(CK,0 gN m^-2 a^-1)、低氮(LN,15 gN m^-2 a^-1)、中氮(MN,30 gN m^-2 a^-1)和高氮(HN,60 gN m^-2 a^-1),并在每种氮添加处理下设置去除凋落物和保留凋落物两种处理,于2021年3月-2022年2月利用LI-8100测定土壤呼吸速率,并分析氮添加及凋落物处理对土壤呼吸速率影响,确定影响土壤呼吸速率变化的主要因子。结果表明:氮添加和去除凋落物处理没有改变土壤呼吸速率的时间变化,土壤呼吸速率月均最大值出现在7月,月均最小值出现在2月。氮添加对土壤呼吸速率无显著影响(P > 0.05),除CK外,去除凋落物处理会显著降低土壤呼吸速率(P < 0.05)。凋落物对土壤总呼吸速率的贡献率为8.6%-28.5%,且LN处理下凋落物对土壤呼吸速率的贡献率最大。土壤呼吸速率与5 m土壤温度呈显著指数相关(P < 0.01),与5 cm土壤湿度呈显著负线性相关(P < 0.01)。土壤温度解释了土壤呼吸速率变异的58.5%-79.5%,土壤湿度解释了土壤呼吸速率变异的26.4%-39.5%,以土壤温度和湿度构建的双变量模型拟合效果均好于单因子模型,土壤温湿度共同解释土壤呼吸速率变异的59.1%-85.8%。结论表明在大气氮沉降增加的背景下,温度是影响土壤呼吸的主要因素,凋落物管理是调控土壤呼吸的关键过程。     

氮添加下城市森林土壤呼吸动态变化及其影响因素

城市森林是生态系统重要碳库,其土壤呼吸是构成陆地土壤碳循环的重要环节。为了研究全球氮沉降增加背景下城市森林土壤呼吸动态变化及影响因素,本研究选取安徽省合肥市蜀山森林公园典型城市森林为研究对象,通过添加0(CK)、50(LN)、100(HN) kg N·m^-2·a^-1硝酸铵试验,对其土壤呼吸速率、温湿度及理化性质进行动态观测。结果表明: 城市森林土壤呼吸具有明显的季节差异,氮添加没有改变土壤呼吸季节动态特征;土壤呼吸与土壤温度存在显著相关性,土壤温度与土壤湿度的交互作用能更好地解释土壤呼吸的变异;氮添加在一定程度上改变了土壤呼吸的温度敏感性,其指数Q₁₀值表现为LN(2.12)>CK(2.10)>HN(2.05);不同氮添加条件下,土壤呼吸与土壤硝态氮、溶解性有机碳、pH、碳氮比存在显著相关关系;氮添加对土壤呼吸的促进作用主要表现在生长季,对非生长季土壤呼吸则表现出轻微的抑制作用。     

Semicircular canal system in early primates

Mammals with more rapid and agile locomotion have larger semicircular canals relative to body mass than species that move more slowly. Measurements of semicircular canals in extant mammals with known locomotor behaviours can provide a basis for testing hypotheses about locomotion in fossil primates that is independent of postcranial remains, and a means of reconstructing locomotor behaviour in species known only from cranial material. Semicircular canal radii were measured using ultra high resolution X-ray CT data for 9 stem primates (“plesiadapiforms”; n = 11), 7 adapoids (n = 12), 4 omomyoids (n = 5), and the possible omomyoid Rooneyia viejaensis (n = 1). These were compared with a modern sample (210 species including 91 primates) with known locomotor behaviours. The predicted locomotor agilities for extinct primates generally follow expectations based on known postcrania for those taxa. “Plesiadapiforms” and adapids have relatively small semicircular canals, suggesting they practiced less agile locomotion than other fossil primates in the sample, which is consistent with reconstructions of them as less specialized for leaping. The derived notharctid adapoids (excluding Cantius) and all omomyoids sampled have relatively larger semicircular canals, suggesting that they were more agile, with Microchoerus in particular being reconstructed as having had very jerky locomotion with relatively high magnitude accelerations of the head. Rooneyia viejaensis is reconstructed as having been similarly agile to omomyids and derived notharctid adapoids, which suggests that when postcranial material is found for this species it will exhibit features for some leaping behaviour, or for a locomotor mode requiring a similar degree of agility.     

Blood parasites of livestock in certain Regions in Saudi Arabia

Blood samples from camels, sheep, goats and cattle from six Regions in Saudi Arabia were examined for blood parasites. Asir Region camels were disinfected while those of the Eastern, Jazan, Northern Frontiers, Riyadh and Tabouk Regions were infected with Trypanosoma evansi (5–40%), those of Riyadh and the Eastern Regions were infected with Dipetalonema evansi (1–6%) and those of the Eastern, Jazan and Riyadh Regions were infected with Eperythrozoon species (8–20%). Sheep and goats of all tested regions were infected with Theilaria hirci (4–20% and 6–14%, respectively), Theilaria ovis (5–19% and 6–24%, respectively) and Eperthrozoon ovis (2–9% and 2–8%, respectively). Sheep of the Eastern and Northern Frontiers Regions were also infected with Anaplasma ovis (2%) and also those of the Eastern Region were infected with Babesia motasi (4%) as well. Cattle of Asir and Eastern Regions were infected with Anaplasma marginale (1–3.4%) and those of the Eastern, Jazan and Riyadh Regions were infected with Theileria annulata (11.3–25%) and Eperthrozoon wenyoni (1–4%). Moreover, Jazan cattle were infected with Babesia bigemina (6%) and a benign Theileria species (27%). Some of these parasites are recorded in new localities indicating that they are spreading in the country. Also, this is the first report in Saudi Arabia of D. evansi in camels, A. ovis and B. motasi in sheep and A. marginale and B. bigemina in cattle. These parasites may be introduced into the country with infected livestock infested with the vectors of these parasites. The suspected vectors of the detected parasites in Saudi Arabia is discussed. Follow up surveys of blood parasites are recommended to assess their distribution and infection rates in the livestock of all Regions of Saudi Arabia, to make plans for control measures against their vectors.     

Plant-parasitic Nematode Communities and Their Associations with Soil Factors in Organically Farmed Fields in Minnesota

A survey was conducted to determine the assemblage and abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes and their associations with soil factors in organically farmed fields in Minnesota. A total of 31 soil samples were collected from southeast (SE), 26 samples from southwest (SW), 28 from west-central (WC), and 23 from northwest (NW) Minnesota. The assemblage and abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes varied among the four regions. The soybean cyst nematode, Heterodera glycines, the most destructive pathogen of soybean, was detected in 45.2, 88.5, 10.7, and 0% of organically farmed fields with relative prominence (RP) values of 10.3, 26.5, 0.6, and 0 in the SE, SW, WC, and NW regions, respectively. Across the four regions, other common genera of plant-parasitic nematodes were Helicotylenchus (42.6, RP value, same below), Pratylenchus (26.9), Tylenchorhynchus and related genera (9.4), Xiphinema (5.6), and Paratylenchus (5.3). Aphelenchoides, Meloidogyne, Hoplolaimus, Mesocriconema, and Trichodorus were also detected at low frequencies and/or low population densities. The similarity index of plant-parasitic nematodes between two regions ranged from 0.44 to 0.71 and the similarity increased with decreasing distance between regions. The densities of most plant-parasitic nematodes did not correlate with measured soil factors (organic matter, pH, texture). However, the densities of Pratylenchus correlated negatively with % sand, and Xiphinema was correlated negatively with soil pH.     

Differences in pollen viability in relation to different deceptive pollination strategies in Mediterranean orchids

Background and Aims

To date, current research involving pollen viability has been evaluated in a relatively low number of orchid species. In the present study, we focused on five related Mediterranean orchid genera (Anacamptis, Orchis, Dactylorhiza, Ophrys and Serapias) that are characterized by different types of deceptive pollination.

Methods

The in vitro germination ability of increasingly aged pollinaria of eight food-, seven sexually and two shelter-deceptive species was evaluated. Pollination experiments on two food-, one sexually and one shelter-deceptive species were also performed and the percentage of embryonate seeds derived from the increasingly aged pollinaria was checked.

Key Results

All of the examined species showed long-term viabilities (=50 % pollen tube growth) that ranged from 8 to 35 d. Species with the same deceptive pollination strategies exhibited the same pollen viability trends. Interestingly, pollen viabilities of species groups with different deception types have shown significant differences, with sexually and shelter- deceptive species exhibiting a shorter life span than food-deceptive species.

Conclusions

This study confirms the prolonged germination and fertilization capacities of orchid pollinaria, and to our knowledge is the first report demonstrating a clear relationship between pollen viability and pollination system. It is proposed that this relationship is attributed to the different types of reproductive barriers, pre- or post-zygotic, that characterixe Ophrys and Serapias and the food-deceptive species, respectively.     

Bacterial flora in the alimentary tract of chickens infected with Eimeria brunetti and in chickens immunized with Eimeria maxima and cross-infected with Eimeria brunetti

Differential bacterial counts were made on the intestinal and caecal contents of chickens after inoculation with a standard dose of 320 000 freshly sporulated oocysts of Eimeria brunetti.     

Vascular Streak Dieback of cacao in Southeast Asia and Melanesia: in planta detection of the pathogen and a new taxonomy

Vascular Streak Dieback (VSD) disease of cacao (Theobroma cacao) in Southeast Asia and Melanesia is caused by a basidiomycete (Ceratobasidiales) fungus Oncobasidium theobromae (syn. =Thanatephorus theobromae). The most characteristic symptoms of the disease are green-spotted leaf chlorosis or, commonly since about 2004, necrotic blotches, followed by senescence of leaves beginning on the second or third flush behind the shoot apex, and blackening of infected xylem in the vascular traces at the leaf scars resulting from the abscission of infected leaves. Eventually the shoot apex is killed and infected branches die. In susceptible cacao the fungus may grow through the xylem down into the main stem and kill a mature cacao tree. Infections in the stem of young plants prior to the formation of the first 3-4 lateral branches usually kill the plant. Basidiospores released from corticioid basidiomata developed on leaf scars or along cracks in the main vein of infected leaves infect young leaves. The pathogen commonly infects cacao but there are rare reports from avocado. As both crops are introduced to the region, the pathogen is suspected to occur asymptomatically in native vegetation. The pathogen is readily isolated but cultures cannot be maintained. In this study, DNA was extracted from pure cultures of O. theobromae obtained from infected cacao plants sampled from Indonesia. The internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), consisting of ITS1, 5.8S ribosomal RNA and ITS2, and a portion of nuclear large subunit (LSU) were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of ITS sequences placed O. theobromae sister to Ceratobasidium anastomosis groups AG-A, AG-Bo, and AG-K with high posterior probability. Therefore the new combination Ceratobasidium theobromae is proposed. A PCR-based protocol was developed to detect and identify C. theobromae in plant tissue of cacao enabling early detection of the pathogen in plants. A second species of Ceratobasidium, Ceratobasidium ramicola, identified through ITS sequence analysis, was isolated from VSD-affected cacao plants in Java, and is widespread in diseased cacao collected from Indonesia.     

Acquisition and Distribution of Nematodes in Irrigation Waterways of the Columbia Basin in Eastern Washington

The primary source of plant parasitic nematodes in irrigation waterways in the Columbia Basin Project of eastern Washington is irrigation runoff returned into the irrigation system. This has contributed to the rapid spread of plant parasitic nematodes observed during eight years of study.     

Recent advances in the in vitro cultivation and genetic manipulation of Echinococcus multilocularis metacestodes and germinal cells

In order to elucidate host-parasite interactions and infection strategies of helminths at the molecular level, the availability of suitable in vitro cultivation systems for this group of parasites is of vital importance. One of the few helminth systems for which in vitro cultivation has been relatively successfully carried out in the past is the larval stage of the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis, the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis. Respective ‘first generation’ cultivation systems relied on the co-incubation of larval tissue, isolated from laboratory rodents, with host feeder cells. Although these techniques have been very successful in producing metacestode material for drug screening assays or the establishment of cDNA libraries, the continuous presence of host cells prevented detailed studies on the influence of defined host factors on larval growth. To facilitate such investigations, we have recently introduced the first truly axenic system for long-term in vitro maintenance of metacestode vesicles and used it to establish a technique for parasite cell cultivation. The resulting culture system, which allows the complete in vitro regeneration of metacestode vesicles from germinal cells, is a highly useful tool to study the cellular and molecular basis of a variety of developmental processes that occur during the infection of the mammalian host. Furthermore, it provides a solid basis for establishing transgenic techniques in cestodes for the first time. We consider it an appropriate time point to discuss the characteristics of these ‘second generation’ cultivation systems in comparison with former techniques, to present our first successful attempts to introduce foreign DNA into Echinococcus cells, and to share our ideas on how a fully transgenic Echinococcus strain can be generated in the near future.