Analogous effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the laboratory and a North Carolina field

Although arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are ubiquitous symbionts of plants, the mutualism has rarely been tested in nature. In experiments designed to explore the ecological relevance of associations between different fungal and plant species in a natural environment, plant species were infected with different species of fungi and grown in separate trials in the laboratory and a North Carolina (USA) field. The benefits to plants varied dramatically as plant species were grown with different species of AM fungi. Effects of mycorrhizal fungi in nature were generally correlated to effects in the growth chamber, suggesting that laboratory data do reflect dynamics between plants and AM fungi in the field. Initial size at transplant and experimental block were also significant predictors of plant growth in the field. Correlation statistics between laboratory and field data were weaker when analyses involved plant species less responsive to infection by any AM fungus, suggesting that the response of a species to inoculation is a good predictor of its sensitivity to specific AM fungi in the field. AM fungal identity appears to influence the growth and reproduction of plants in the field.     

Interspecific differences in the response of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to Artemisia tridentata grown under elevated atmospheric CO2

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi form mutualistic symbioses with the root systems of most plant species. These mutualisms regulate nutrient exchange in the plant–soil interface and might influence the way in which plants respond to increasing atmospheric CO₂. In other experiments, mycorrhizal responses to elevated CO₂ have been variable, so in this study we test the hypothesis that different genera of AM fungi differ in their response, and in turn alter the plant's response, to elevated CO₂. Four species from three genera of AM fungi were tested. Artemisia tridentata Nutt. seedlings were inoculated with either Glomus intraradices Schenck & Smith, Glomus etunicatum Becker & Gerdemann, Acaulospora sp. or Scutellospora calospora (Nicol. & Gerd.) Walker & Sanders and grown at either ambient CO₂ (350 ppm) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm). Several significant inter-specific responses were detected. Elevated CO₂ caused percent arbuscular and hyphal colonization to increase for the two Glomus species, but not for Acaulospora sp. or S. calospora . Vesicular colonization was not affected by elevated CO₂ for any fungal species. In the extra-radical phase, the two Glomus species produced a significantly higher number of spores in response to elevated CO₂, whereas Acaulospora sp. and S. calospora developed significantly higher hyphal lengths. These data show that AM fungal taxa differ in their growth allocation strategies and in their responses to elevated CO₂, and that mycorrhizal diversity should not be overlooked in global change research.     

Suppression of fungal and nematode plant pathogens through arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi represent ubiquitous mutualists of terrestrial plants. Through the symbiosis, plant hosts, among other benefits, receive protection from pathogens. A meta-analysis was conducted on 106 articles to determine whether, following pathogen infection of AM-colonized plants, the identity of the organisms involved (pathogens, AM fungi and host plants) had implications for the extent of the AM-induced pathogen suppression. Data on fungal and nematode pathogens were analysed separately. Although we found no differences in AM effectiveness with respect to the identity of the plant pathogen, the identity of the AM isolate had a dramatic effect on the level of pathogen protection. AM efficiency differences with respect to nematode pathogens were mainly limited to the number of AM isolates present; by contrast, modification of the ability to suppress fungal pathogens could occur even through changing the identity of the Glomeraceae isolate applied. N-fixing plants received more protection from fungal pathogens than non-N-fixing dicotyledons; this was attributed to the more intense AM colonization in N-fixing plants. Results have implications for understanding mycorrhizal ecology and agronomic applications.     

Mycorrhizal fungal growth responds to soil characteristics,but not host plant identity,during a primary lacustrine dune succession

Soil factors and host plant identity can both affect the growth and functioning of mycorrhizal fungi. Both components change during primary succession, but it is unknown if their relative importance to mycorrhizas also changes. This research tested how soil type and host plant differences among primary successional stages determine the growth and plant effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal communities. Mycorrhizal fungal community, plant identity, and soil conditions were manipulated among three stages of a lacustrine sand dune successional series in a fully factorial greenhouse experiment. Late succession AM fungi produced more arbuscules and soil hyphae when grown in late succession soils, although the community was from the same narrow phylogenetic group as those in intermediate succession. AM fungal growth did not differ between host species, and plant growth was similarly unaffected by different AM fungal communities. These results indicate that though ecological filtering and/or adaptation of AM fungi occurs during this primary dune succession, it more strongly reflects matching between fungi and soils, rather than interactions between fungi and host plants. Thus, AM fungal performance during this succession may not depend directly on the sequence of plant community succession.     

尖峰岭热带山地雨林根部真菌-植物互作网络结构特征

不同功能群的根部真菌可能会与植物差异性地互作, 并进一步影响地下真菌与植物群落构建。本研究采用Illumina Miseq测序方法检测了海南尖峰岭热带山地雨林中常见植物的根部真菌; 采用网络分析法比较了丛枝菌根(AM)真菌、外生菌根(ECM)真菌, 以及所有根部真菌与植物互作的二分网络(bipartite networks)结构特性。从槭树科、番荔枝科、夹竹桃科、冬青科、棕榈科、壳斗科、樟科和木犀科等8科植物的根系中, 检测到297,831条真菌ITS1序列, 这些序列被划为1,279个真菌分类单元(OTUs), 其中子囊菌门748个、担子菌门354个、球囊菌亚门80个, 以及未知真菌97个。核心根部真菌群落(420个OTUs)中, 至少有三类不同生态功能的真菌常见, 即丛枝菌根真菌(40个OTUs, 占总序列数23.4%)、外生菌根真菌(48个OTUs, 13.9%)和腐生型真菌(83个OTUs, 19.8%)。尖峰岭山地雨林根部真菌-植物互作网络结构特性的指标普遍显著高于/低于假定物种随机互作的零模型期待值。在群落水平, 不同功能型的根部真菌-植物互作网络表现出不同或相反的结构特性, 如丛枝菌根互作网络表现为比零模型预测值高的嵌套性和连接性, 以及比零模型低的专一性, 而外生菌根互作网络呈现出比零模型预测值低的嵌套性和连接性, 以及比零模型高的专一性。在功能群水平, 植物的生态位重叠度在AM互作网络高, 而ECM互作网络低; 真菌的生态位宽度在ECM互作网络窄, 而在AM互作网络较宽。共现(co-occurrence)网络分析进一步揭示, ECM群落的物种对资源的高度种间竞争(植物、真菌高C-score), 以及AM群落的物种无明显种间竞争(低C-score), 可能分别是形成反嵌套ECM互作网络及高嵌套AM互作网络结构的原因。上述结果说明, 尖峰岭山地雨林中至少有两种及以上的种间互作机制调节群落构建: 驱动AM互作网络冗余(nestedness)及ECM互作网络的高生态位分化(专一性)。本研究在同一个森林内探讨了不同功能型的真菌-植物互作特性, 对深入理解热带森林的物种共存机制和生态恢复具有重要意义。     

Mycorrhizas: Gene to Function

Substantial progress has been made toward development of molecular tools for identification and quantification of mycorrhizal fungi in roots and evaluation of the diversity of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi and the phylogeny and genetic structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. rDNA analysis confirms high diversity of ECM fungi on their hosts, and for AM fungi has revealed considerable genetic variation within and among morphologically similar AM fungal species. The fungal and plant genes, regulation of their expression, and biochemical pathways for nutrient exchange between symbiotic partners are now coming under intense study and will eventually be used to define the ecological nutritional role of the fungi. While molecular biological approaches have increased understanding of the mycorrhizal symbiosis, such knowledge about these lower-scale processes has yet to influence our understanding of larger-scale responses to any great extent.     

The interactive effects of plant microbial symbionts: a review and meta-analysis

In nature, plants often associate with multiple symbionts concurrently, yet the effects of tripartite symbioses are not well understood. We expected synergistic growth responses from plants associating with functionally distinct symbionts. In contrast, symbionts providing similar benefits to a host may reduce host plant growth. We reviewed studies investigating the effect of multiple interactions on host plant performance. Additionally, we conducted a meta-analysis on the studies that performed controlled manipulations of the presence of two microbial symbionts. Using response ratios, we investigated the effects on plants of pairs of symbionts (mycorrhizal fungi, fungal endophytes, and nitrogen-fixers). The results did not support the view that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and rhizobia should interact synergistically. In contrast, we found the joint effects of fungal endophytes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to be greater than expected given their independent effects. This increase in plant performance only held for antagonistic endophytes, whose negative effects were alleviated when in association with AM fungi, while the impact of beneficial endophytes was not altered by infection with AM fungi. Generalizations from the meta-analysis were limited by the substantial variation within types of interactions and the data available, highlighting the need for more research on a range of plant systems.     

Soil nutritional status, not inoculum identity, primarily determines the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of Knautia arvensis plants

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is among the factors contributing to plant survival in serpentine soils characterised by unfavourable physicochemical properties. However, AM fungi show a considerable functional diversity, which is further modified by host plant identity and edaphic conditions. To determine the variability among serpentine AM fungal isolates in their effects on plant growth and nutrition, a greenhouse experiment was conducted involving two serpentine and two non-serpentine populations of Knautia arvensis plants grown in their native substrates. The plants were inoculated with one of the four serpentine AM fungal isolates or with a complex AM fungal community native to the respective plant population. At harvest after 6-month cultivation, intraradical fungal development was assessed, AM fungal taxa established from native fungal communities were determined and plant growth and element uptake evaluated. AM symbiosis significantly improved the performance of all the K. arvensis populations. The extent of mycorrhizal growth promotion was mainly governed by nutritional status of the substrate, while the effect of AM fungal identity was negligible. Inoculation with the native AM fungal communities was not more efficient than inoculation with single AM fungal isolates in any plant population. Contrary to the growth effects, a certain variation among AM fungal isolates was revealed in terms of their effects on plant nutrient uptake, especially P, Mg and Ca, with none of the AM fungi being generally superior in this respect. Regardless of AM symbiosis, K. arvensis populations significantly differed in their relative nutrient accumulation ratios, clearly showing the plant’s ability to adapt to nutrient deficiency/excess.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species suppress inducible plant responses and alter defensive strategies following herbivory

In a greenhouse experiment using Plantago lanceolata, plants grown with different arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal species differed in constitutive levels of chemical defense depending on the species of AM fungi with which they were associated. AM fungal inoculation also modified the induced chemical response following herbivory by the specialist lepidopoteran herbivore Junonia coenia, and fungal species varied in how they affected induced responses. On average, inoculation with AM fungi substantially reduced the induced chemical response as compared with sterile controls, and inoculation with a mixture of AM fungi suppressed the induced response of P. lanceolata to herbivory. These results suggest that AM fungi can exert controlling influence over plant defensive phenotypes, and a portion of the substantial variation among experimental tests of induced chemical responses may be attributable to AM fungi.     

Fungal root colonization responses in natural grasslands after long-term exposure to elevated atmospheric CO2

Arbuscular mycorrhizae, ubiquitous mutualistic symbioses between plant roots and fungi in the order Glomales, are believed to be important controllers of plant responses to global change, in particular to elevated atmospheric CO₂. In order to test if any effects on the symbiosis can persist after long-term treatment, we examined root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and other fungi of several plant species from two grassland communities after continuous exposure to elevated atmospheric CO₂ for six growing seasons in the field. For plant species from both a sandstone and a serpentine annual grassland there was evidence for changes in fungal root colonization, with changes occurring as a function of plant host species. We documented decreases in percentage nonmycorrhizal fungal root colonization in elevated CO₂ for several plant species. Total AM root colonization (%) only increased significantly for one out of the five plant species in each grassland. However, when dividing AM fungal hyphae into two groups of hyphae (fine endophyte and coarse endophyte), we could document significant responses of AM fungi that were hidden when only total percentage colonization was measured. We also documented changes in elevated CO₂ in the percentage of root colonized by both AM hyphal types simultaneously. Our results demonstrate that changes in fungal root colonization can occur after long-term CO₂ enrichment, and that the level of resolution of the study of AM fungal responses may have to be increased to uncover significant changes to the CO₂ treatment. This study is also one of the first to document compositional changes in the AM fungi colonizing roots of plants grown in elevated CO₂. Although it is difficult to relate the structural data directly to functional changes, possible implications of the observed changes for plant communities are discussed.     

Evolutionary histories and mycorrhizal associations of mycoheterotrophic plants dependent on saprotrophic fungi

Mycoheterotrophic plants (MHPs) are leafless, achlorophyllous, and completely dependent on mycorrhizal fungi for their carbon supply. Mycorrhizal symbiosis is a mutualistic association with fungi that is undertaken by the majority of land plants, but mycoheterotrophy represents a breakdown of this mutualism in that plants parasitize fungi. Most MHPs are associated with fungi that are mycorrhizal with autotrophic plants, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) or ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi. Although these MHPs gain carbon via the common mycorrhizal network that links the surrounding autotrophic plants, some mycoheterotrophic lineages are associated with saprotrophic (SAP) fungi, which are free-living and decompose leaf litter and wood materials. Such MHPs are dependent on the forest carbon cycle, which involves the decomposition of wood debris and leaf litter, and have a unique biology and evolutionary history. MHPs associated with SAP fungi (SAP-MHPs) have to date been found only in the Orchidaceae and likely evolved independently at least nine times within that family. Phylogenetically divergent SAP Basidiomycota, mostly Agaricales but also Hymenochaetales, Polyporales, and others, are involved in mycoheterotrophy. The fungal specificity of SAP-MHPs varies from a highly specific association with a single fungal species to a broad range of interactions with multiple fungal orders. Establishment of symbiotic culture systems is indispensable for understanding the mechanisms underlying plant–fungus interactions and the conservation of MHPs. Symbiotic culture systems have been established for many SAP-MHP species as a pure culture of free-living SAP fungi is easier than that of biotrophic AM or ECM fungi. Culturable SAP-MHPs are useful research materials and will contribute to the advancement of plant science.

     

丛枝菌根真菌对大气CO2浓度升高和增温响应研究进展

全球变化深刻影响着陆地生态系统生物多样性及生态功能。丛枝菌根(AM)真菌可与绝大多数陆生植物根系形成互惠共生体,在协助宿主养分吸收、促进植物生长、维持植物多样性等方面发挥着重要作用。本文主要分析了大气CO₂浓度升高(eCO₂)和增温对森林和草地生态系统AM真菌群落组成及其功能的影响。eCO₂主要通过影响宿主植物、土壤碳(C)输入等方式间接影响AM真菌,可增加AM真菌的多度和活性,影响AM真菌的多样性与群落组成。增温可直接或间接地(通过宿主植物和土壤途径)影响AM真菌,显著改变森林土壤AM真菌的群落组成,但对草地土壤AM真菌群落组成的影响尚无定论。我们提出了当前研究中存在的主要问题及未来应重点关注的内容。本文旨在明晰AM真菌对eCO₂和增温的响应和适应,增进对AM真菌介导的土壤生态功能的认识,为利用AM真菌缓解全球变化、增强土壤功能的韧性和全球变化的生态系统适应性提供依据。     

Compatible host/mycorrhizal fungus combinations for micropropagated sea oats

Micropropagation technology promises to improve the supply of sea oats for restoring Florida's eroded beaches, but concerns about genetic diversity need to be addressed. These dune plants are colonized by a wide array of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, yet little is know of the diversity of these fungal communities. Our goal was to test the level of functional diversity that exists among communities of AM fungi that are present in divergent Florida dunes. Community pot cultures were established from samples collected from ten transects in two Gulf coast and two Atlantic coast locations in Florida, and these were used to conduct two greenhouse studies. The objective of the first study was to evaluate within-location variance in the mycorrhizal function of different AM fungal communities associated with endemic sea oats. The objective of the second study was to evaluate among-location responses of plant and fungal ecotypes using selected combinations obtained from the first experiment. Within locations, the AM fungal community had significant impacts on shoot mass and shoot-P contents, confirming a range of symbiotic effectiveness exists within the beach-dune system. Among locations, there was a tendency for greater root colonization between host clones and fungal communities from the same location, indicating a degree of specificity between host ecotypes and their symbiotic fungi. Relative to plant growth response, one fungal community was superior across plant genotypes from all locations, while one plant genotype tended to have the best response across all fungal communities. These data suggest that while it is possible to select effective AM fungal-host combinations for outplanting, origin of host and AM fungi have little predictive value in screening these combinations.     

Mycorrhizal colonization status of plant species established in an exposed area following the 2000 eruption of Mt. Usu, Hokkaido, Japan

We investigated the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) colonization status of plant seedlings that established in areas devastated by the eruption in March 2000 of Mt. Usu, Hokkaido, Japan. In 2005, we estimated the mycorrhizal colonization ratios and frequencies in seedlings of twelve herbaceous and seven woody plant species. Although arbuscular mycorrhizas were found to colonize Equisetum arvense and Polygonum sachalinense, they were presented at very low frequencies and colonization ratios. Other herbaceous plants exhibited higher frequencies of AM associations and either AM and/or ECM fungal associations were observed in all of the woody plant seedlings investigated. The dominant woody plant species (Populus maximowiczii, Salix sachalinensis and Salix hultenii var. angustifolia) associated mainly with ECM fungi and exhibited variable associations with AM fungi. Mycorrhizal associations were common and significant events for plant establishment, even in the early stages of the revegetation process.     

Mycorrhizal responses to nitrogen fertilization in boreal ecosystems: potential consequences for soil carbon storage

Mycorrhizal fungi can contribute to soil carbon sequestration by immobilizing carbon in living fungal tissues and by producing recalcitrant compounds that remain in the soil following fungal senescence. We hypothesized that nitrogen (N) fertilization would decrease these carbon stocks, because plants should reduce investment of carbon in mycorrhizal fungi when N availability is high. We measured the abundance of two major groups of mycorrhizal fungi, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, in the top 10 cm of soil in control and N-fertilized plots within three Alaskan boreal ecosystems that represented different recovery stages following severe fire. Pools of mycorrhizal carbon included root-associated AM and ECM structures; soil-associated AM hyphae; and glomalin, a glycoprotein produced by AM fungi. Total mycorrhizal carbon pools decreased by approximately 50 g C m⁻² in the youngest site under N fertilization, and this reduction was driven mostly by glomalin. Total mycorrhizal carbon did not change significantly in the other sites. Root-associated AM structures were more abundant under N fertilization across all sites, and root-associated ECM structures increased marginally significantly. We found no significant N effects on AM hyphae. Carbon sequestered within living mycorrhizal structures (0.051–0.21 g m⁻²) was modest compared with that of glomalin (33–203 g m⁻²). We conclude that our hypothesis was only supported in relation to glomalin stocks within one of the three study sites. As N effects on glomalin were inconsistent among sites, an understanding of the mechanisms underlying this variation would improve our ability to predict ecosystem feedbacks to global change.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from three genera induce two-phase plant growth responses on a high P-fixing soil

Plant growth enhancing effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are suitably quantified by comparisons of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plant growth responses to added phosphorus (P). The ratio between the amounts of added P required for the same yield of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants is termed the relative effectiveness of the mycorrhiza. Variation in this relative effectiveness was examined for subterranean clover grown on a high P-fixing soil. Plants were either left non-mycorrhizal or inoculated with one of three AM fungal species with well-characterised differences in external hyphal spread. With no P added, plants from all treatments produced <10% of their maximum growth achieved at non-limiting P supply. The growth response of non-mycorrhizal plants was markedly sigmoid. Mycorrhizal growth responses were not sigmoid but their shape was two-phased. The first phase was an asymptotic approach to 25–30% of maximum growth, followed by a second asymptotic rise to maximum growth. Growth effects of Glomus invermaium and Acaulospora laevis were quite similar. Plants in these treatments produced up to four times greater shoot dry biomass than non-mycorrhizal plants. Scutellospora calospora was less effective. The relative effectiveness of AM fungi varied with the level of P application. This is expected to apply to all soils on which a sigmoid response is obtained for growth of non-mycorrhizal plants. In a simple approximation the relative effectiveness was calculated to range from 1.46 to 15.57. Shoot P contents were increased by up to 25 times by A. laevis, significantly more than by the other two fungi. The further mycelial spread of this fungus is thought to have contributed to its relatively greater effect on plant P content.     

干旱条件下AM真菌对植物生长和土壤水稳定性团聚体的影响

采用分室培养系统,模拟正常水分和干旱胁迫两种环境条件,探讨不同丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,AMF)对紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativa L.)生长和土壤水稳性团聚体的影响.试验条件下,Glomus intraradices对苜蓿根系的侵染率均显著高于Acaulospora scrobiculata和Diversispora spurcum接种处理.正常水分条件下,供试AM真菌均能显著提高植株生物量及磷浓度.干旱胁迫显著抑制了植株生长和菌根共生体发育,总体上菌根共生体对植株生长没有明显影响,接种D.spurcum甚至趋于降低植株生物量;同时,仅有G.intraradices显著提高了植株磷浓度.AM真菌主要影响到＞2mm的水稳性团聚体数量,以G.intraradices作用效果最为显著.在菌丝室中,G.intraradices显著提高了总球囊霉素含量.研究表明AM真菌对土壤大团聚体形成具有积极作用,而菌根效应因土壤水分条件和不同菌种而异,干旱胁迫下仅有G.intraradices对土壤结构和植物生长表现出显著积极作用.在应用菌根技术治理退化土壤时,需要选用抗逆性强共生效率高的菌株,对于不同AM真菌抗逆性差异的生物学与遗传学基础尚需进一步研究.     

Plant species-specific changes in root-inhabiting fungi in a California annual grassland: responses to elevated CO2 and nutrients

Five co-occurring plant species from an annual mediterranean grassland were grown in monoculture for 4 months in pots inside open-top chambers at the Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve (San Mateo County, California). The plants were exposed to elevated atmospheric CO₂ and soil nutrient enrichment in a complete factorial experiment. The response of root-inhabiting non-mycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to the altered resource base depended strongly on the plant species. Elevated CO₂ and fertilization altered the ratio of non-mycorrhizal to mycorrhizal fungal colonization for some plant species, but not for others. Percent root infection by non-mycorrhizal fungi increased by over 500% for Linanthus parviflorus in elevated CO₂, but decreased by over 80% for Bromus hordeaceus. By contrast, the mean percent infection by mycorrhizal fungi increased in response to elevated CO₂ for all species, but significantly only for Avena barbata and B. hordeaceus. Percent infection by mycorrhizal fungi increased, decreased, or remained unchanged for different plant hosts in response to fertilization. There was evidence of a strong interaction between the two treatments for some plant species and non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal fungi. This study demonstrated plant species- and soil fertility-dependent shifts in below-ground plant resource allocation to different morpho-groups of fungal symbionts. This may have consequences for plant community responses to elevated CO₂ in this California grassland ecosystem. Received: 2 June 1997 / Accepted: 22 August 1997     

Species of plants and associated arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi mediate mycorrhizal responses to CO2 enrichment

It has been suggested that enrichment of atmospheric CO₂ should alter mycorrhizal function by simultaneously increasing nutrient‐uptake benefits and decreasing net C costs for host plants. However, this hypothesis has not been sufficiently tested. We conducted three experiments to examine the impacts of CO₂ enrichment on the function of different combinations of plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi grown under high and low soil nutrient availability. Across the three experiments, AM function was measured in 14 plant species, including forbs, C₃ and C₄ grasses, and plant species that are typically nonmycorrhizal. Five different AM fungal communities were used for inoculum, including mixtures of Glomus spp. and mixtures of Gigasporaceae (i.e. Gigaspora and Scutellospora spp.). Our results do not support the hypothesis that CO₂ enrichment should consistently increase plant growth benefits from AM fungi, but rather, we found CO₂ enrichment frequently reduced AM benefits. Furthermore, we did not find consistent evidence that enrichment of soil nutrients increases plant growth responses to CO₂ enrichment and decreases plant growth responses to AM fungi. Our results show that the strength of AM mutualisms vary significantly among fungal and plant taxa, and that CO₂ levels further mediate AM function. In general, when CO₂ enrichment interacted with AM fungal taxa to affect host plant dry weight, it increased the beneficial effects of Gigasporaceae and reduced the benefits of Glomus spp. Future studies are necessary to assess the importance of temperature, irradiance, and ambient soil fertility in this response. We conclude that the affects of CO₂ enrichment on AM function varies with plant and fungal taxa, and when making predictions about mycorrhizal function, it is unwise to generalize findings based on a narrow range of plant hosts, AM fungi, and environmental conditions.