葡萄糖激酶激活剂研究进展

葡萄糖激酶分布在体内多个脏器中,可感应葡萄糖和调节糖代谢激素,在稳定血糖水平方面起到重要作用。葡萄糖激酶激活剂系 针对这一靶点而开发,能够通过葡萄糖浓度刺激的胰岛素分泌、降低胰高血糖素浓度和肝糖输出、促进肝糖原合成以及调控肠促胰素释 放等机制来稳定体内血糖水平,近年来已成为2 型糖尿病新型药物研发的热点。介绍现有葡萄糖激酶激活剂药物的开发策略、作用特点 及临床研究进展。     

G蛋白偶联受体119——治疗糖尿病的新靶点

G蛋白偶联受体119(GPR119)与激动剂结合后,通过cAMP信号转导途径,促进葡萄糖依赖性胰岛素和肠肽激素的分泌,是新一代的治疗2型糖尿病药物靶点。本文对GPR119的组织学分布、生理学作用、内源性配体以及小分子激动剂作一简要的介绍。     

基于有氧糖酵解的天然小分子抑制剂的研究进展CSCD

有氧糖酵解作为恶性肿瘤最显著的能量代谢特征之一,肿瘤细胞中大约有50%的ATP是通过有氧糖酵解途径合成的,同时糖酵解过程中产生的各种中间代谢产物也是合成蛋白质等生物大分子重要的原料来源。此外酵解途径导致的乳酸增加为肿瘤细胞提供了一个酸性成长环境,有利于其浸润和转移,因此其在维持肿瘤细胞能量需求、合成代谢平衡和肿瘤浸润和转移方面发挥着重要作用。研究表明有氧糖酵解的过程与葡萄糖转运蛋白、己糖激酶、丙酮酸激酶、磷酸果糖激酶等密切相关。目前靶向有氧糖酵解相关转运蛋白和关键限速酶已经成为抗肿瘤药物研发的有效途径,本文对目前天然产物中靶向有氧糖酵解相关蛋白的小分子抑制剂研究最新进展及作用机理进行总结,以期为相关领域药物研究人员提供新的思路和参考。     

葡糖激酶小分子活化剂及其作用机制

葡糖激酶在调节血糖平衡过程中发挥着重要的作用,其活性的增强能够降低Ⅱ型糖尿病患者的血糖水平。近年来越来越多的研究表明,葡糖激酶小分子活化剂将成为治疗Ⅱ型糖尿病的一个重要调节物。     

小檗碱对2型糖尿病中国地鼠肝脏葡萄糖激酶、葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶和磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧激酶mRNA表达的影响

目的研究小檗碱对2型糖尿病中国地鼠肝脏葡萄糖激酶（GcK）、葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶（G6P）和磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧激酶（PEPCK）mRNA表达的影响,探讨小檗碱影响糖代谢的分子机制。方法以高脂高热量饲料喂养结合腹腔注射小剂量链脲佐菌素（STZ）的方法制作2型糖尿病中国地鼠模型,成模后随机分成模型组、小檗碱组、二甲双胍组,各药干预9周。同时设立对照组。观察小檗碱疗效及对肝脏GcK、G6P、PEPCK mRNA表达的影响。结果与模型组相比,小檗碱增强胰岛素敏感性,降低血糖血脂,增高肝脏GcK的mRNA表达,降低肝脏G6P、PEPCK mRNA的表达。结论小檗碱降低2型糖尿病血糖的作用机制可能与提高肝脏GcK mRNA的表达和降低G6P、PEPCK mRNA的表达有关。     

酪氨酸激酶抑制剂类抗肿瘤药物研究方法进展

酪氨酸激酶(protein tyrosine kinases,PTKs)在肿瘤细胞的增殖、分化、迁移、侵袭等相关信号通路中起到了关键的调控作用,已经成为肿瘤靶向性治疗的重要靶点.本文对靶向酪氨酸激酶的小分子抑制剂的筛选和评价方法进行综述,以期促进酪氨酸激酶抑制剂类抗肿瘤药物的研究.     

取代环丁烷结构的非肽类胰高血糖素样肽-1受体激动剂

应用胰高血糖素样肽-1（glucagon-like peptide-1,GLP-1）及其类似物治疗2型糖尿病是代谢性疾病研究领域近年来的热点,尤其是胰高血糖素样肽-1独特的作用机制倍受业界的关注。它能同时作用于2型糖尿病的多个发病环节,在有效降低血糖的同时,避免低血糖的发生并能减轻体重。但这类药物因其多肽性质而存在诸多的使用限制（如需反复注射）。简要介绍一类取代环丁烷结构的新型非肽类胰高血糖素样肽-1受体小分子激动剂的发现过程、基本药理学特征和体内抗糖尿病和抗肥胖症效应。     

肾脏SGLT2抑制剂:一类新型口服降血糖药物

近年来,钠-葡萄糖2型转运体(sod ium-glucose co-transporter 2,SGLT2)作为一个治疗糖尿病的新靶点受到广泛关注。SGLT2是一类特异性分布在肾脏近曲小管S1段的葡萄糖转运体,其生理功能是负责约90%葡萄糖的重吸收。通过抑制SGLT2,从而减少肾脏对葡萄糖的重吸收,增加尿糖排出,进而降低血糖及其毒性是SGLT2抑制剂的作用机制。SGLT2抑制剂可以明显增加正常动物的尿糖排除量,在糖尿病动物模型可以降低血糖和糖化血红蛋白。代表药物Dapagliflozin的临床试验结果表明其对2型糖尿病人具有很好的降糖效果,不良反应较少。本文结合我们的部分工作,简要介绍SGLT2和其抑制剂的研究进展。     

肥胖及2型糖尿病大鼠Alzheimer病样Tau蛋白过度磷酸化修饰及机制探讨

Tau蛋白异常过度磷酸化修饰在阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimerdisease,AD)发病机理中起非常重要的作用,而2型糖尿病是AD的风险因素之一.采用蛋白质印迹研究2型糖尿病及单纯肥胖大鼠脑中海马回tau蛋白磷酸化程度,发现在这两种大鼠模型中海马tau蛋白在多个位点上都呈现过度磷酸化状态.同时,胰岛素信号传导系统中的关键酶糖原合成激酶-3β(glycogensynthasekinase-3β,GSK-3β)活性在这两种大鼠模型的海马回中明显增高,经脑立体定位法向大鼠海马回注射GSK-3β抑制剂氯化锂(LiCl),可阻止2型糖尿病及肥胖大鼠模型中的GSK-3β激活,但仅阻止单纯肥胖大鼠海马回tau蛋白过度磷酸化.另外,海马神经细胞膜上胰岛素受体β亚基水平在两种实验模型中显著下降.研究结果表明,2型糖尿病及肥胖可能通过增高胰岛素抵抗,从而导致GSK-3β激活和tau蛋白的过度磷酸化来提高AD的发病风险.2型糖尿病脑中低下的葡萄糖代谢也可能在tau蛋白的过度磷酸化起一定作用.     

糖尿病中蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶的研究进展

糖尿病是由于胰岛素分泌不足或胰岛素抵抗引起的以血糖升高为特征的代谢性疾病。有研究发现一些蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶(proteintyrosine phosphatases,PTP)在胰岛素受体信号途径、胰岛素分泌和胰腺β细胞受自身免疫细胞攻击等生理或病理过程中起重要作用。以PTP1B、TCPTP和LYP为代表的PTP通过将底物去磷酸化,拮抗激酶催化的磷酸化反应,在一些信号通路中起到负相调节的作用。在糖尿病患者中发现这些PTP的单核苷酸突变使蛋白表达增加或酶活力增强,因而施用这些潜在靶蛋白的小分子抑制剂成为治疗1型或2型糖尿病可能的新疗法。而PTPIA-2/IA-2β的胞内磷酸酶结构域被发现是大量1型糖尿病患者的自身免疫原,因此可针对PTPIA-2/IA-2β发展早期诊断并预防1型糖尿病的试剂盒。     

Expression of glucose transporter isoform GLUT-2 and glucokinase genes in human brain

The glucose transporter isoform-2 (GLUT-2) and glucokinase are considered to be components of a glucose sensor system controlling several key processes, and hence may modulate feeding behaviour. We have found GLUT-2 and glucokinase mRNAs in several brain regions, including the ventromedial and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus. GLUT-2, glucokinase and glucokinase regulatory protein mRNAs and proteins were present in these areas as determined by biochemical approaches. In addition, glucose-phosphorylating activity with a high apparent Km for glucose that displayed no product inhibition by glucose-6-phosphate was observed. Increased glycaemia after meals may be recognized by specific hypothalamic neurones due to the high Km of GLUT-2 and glucokinase. This enzyme is considered to be the true glucose sensor because it catalyses the rate-limiting step of glucose catabolism its activity being regulated by interaction with glucokinase regulatory protein, that functions as a metabolic sensor.     

Subcellular distribution of hexokinase isoenzymes in pancreatic islet cells exposed to digitonin after incubation at a low or high concentration of D-glucose

It was recently proposed that stimulation of pancreatic islet by D-glucose results in the translocation of glucokinase from the perinuclear area to the cell periphery, where the enzyme might conceivably interact with either the glucose transporter GLUT-2 or some other proteins and, by doing so, become better able to express its full catalytic activity. To explore the possible interaction between glucokinase and the cell boundary, dispersed rat pancreatic islet cells were preincubated for 60 min at a low (2.8 mM) or high (16.7 mM) concentration of D-glucose, then exposed for 1 min to digitonin (0.5 mg/ml) and eventually centrifuged through a layer of oil for separation of the cell pellet from the supernatant fraction containing the material released by digitonin. Under these conditions, the bulk of lactate dehydrogenase and glutamate dehydrogenase activities were recovered in the supernatant fraction and cell pellet, respectively. The measurement of hexokinase isoenzyme activities in th e two subcellular fractions, as conducted at low or high hexose concentrations and in either the absence or presence of exogenous hexose phosphates (3.0 mM glucose 6-phosphate and 1.0 mM fructose 1-phosphate) indicated a preferential location of the low-Km hexokinase in the cell pellet and of the high-Km glucokinase in the cytosolic fraction. Such a distribution pattern failed to be significantly affected by the concentration of D-glucose used during the initial incubation of the dispersed islet cells. These findings argue against the view that the glucose-induced translocation of glucokinase would result in any sizeable binding of the enzyme to a plasma membrane-associated protein. (Mol Cell Biochem 175: 131–136, 1997)     

Purification and characterization of a glucokinase from young tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L. Mill.) fruit

In order to clearly establish the properties of the enzymes responsible for hexose phosphorylation we have undertaken the separation and characterization of these enzymes present in tomato fruit (Martinez-Barajas and Randall 1996). This report describes the partial purification and characterization of glucokinase (EC. 2.7.1.1) from young green tomato fruit. The procedure yielded a 360-fold enrichment of glucokinase. Tomato fruit glucokinase is a monomer with a molecular mass of 53 kDa. Glucokinase activity was optimal between pH 7.5 and 8.5, preferred ATP as the phosphate donor (K _m = 0.223 mM) and exhibited low activity with GTP or UTP. The tomato fruit glucokinase showed highest affinity for glucose (K _m = 65 μM). Activity observed with glucose was 4-fold greater than with mannose and 50-fold greater than with fructose. The tomato fruit glucokinase was sensitive to product inhibition by ADP (K _i = 36 μM). Little inhibition was observed with glucose 6-phosphate (up to 15 mM) at pH 8.0; however, at pH 7.0 glucokinase activity was inhibited 30–50% by physiological concentrations of glucose 6-phosphate. Received: 4 October 1997 / Accepted: 10 January 1998     

Glucokinase and Fructokinase of Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus

ABSTRACT. Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus contain glucokinase and not a hexokinase of broad hexose specificity. Tritrichomonas foetus also contains a specific fructokinase which could be resolved from glucokinase by anion exchange chromatography. Native T. vaginalis glucokinase had a Mr of 76,000, and SDS-PAG electrophoresis showed two equally stained bands corresponding to Mr 40,000 and 38,000. Glucose and ATP were by far the best substrates for both trichomonad glucokinases, with Km values as low as 33–35 μM and 75–83 μM, respectively. Substrate saturation curves for these enzymes were all hyperbolic. Tritrichomonas foetus fructokinase required fructose and ATP, with Km values of 200 μM and 81 μM. None of the activities was affected by a number of potential regulatory metabolites, including glucose-6-phosphate. The only exception was AMP which in supraphysiological concentrations had an inhibitory effect on T. foetus fructokinase. In conclusion, the absence of regulation at the hexose phosphorylation step described here, as well as the presence of an easily reversible PPi: fructose-6-phosphate 1 -phosphotransferase described previously (Mertens, E., Van Schaftingen, E. & Müller, M. 1989. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. , 37 :183–190), suggest that the rate of the 1st part of glycolysis in trichomonads is controlled only by the intracellular availability of hexoses.     

Phosphorylation by liver glucokinase of D-glucose anomers at anomeric equilibrium

The relative contribution of each anomer of D-glucose to the overall phosphorylation rate of the hexose tested at anomeric equilibrium was examined in rat liver postmicrosomal supernatants under conditions aimed at characterizing the activity of glucokinase, with negligible interference of either hexokinase, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine kinase or glucose-6-phosphatase (acting as a phosphotransferase). Both at 10 degrees and 30 degrees C, the relative contribution of each anomer was unaffected by the concentration of D-glucose. At both temperatures, the alpha/beta ratio for the contribution of each anomer was slightly, but significantly, lower than the alpha/beta ratio of anomer concentrations. These findings, which are consistent with the anomeric specificity of glucokinase in terms of affinity, cooperativity and maximal velocity, reveal that the preferred alpha-anomeric substrate for both glycogen synthesis and glycolysis is generated by glucokinase at a lower rate than is beta-D-glucose-6-phosphate.     

Hexokinases of tobacco leaves: influence of plant age on particulate and soluble isozyme composition

Changes in hexokinase particulate and soluble isozyme composition and activities in leaves of 65- and 115-d-old tobacco plants were determined by ion exchange chromatography on DEAE cellulose. During plant ageing, the activities of glucose and of fructose phosphorylating isozymes of particulate hexokinase decreased to 9.9 and 9.2 % of initial value, respectively. The activity of soluble hexokinase decreased to a lesser extent: that of glucose phosphorylating isozyme to 49.8 % and of fructose phosphorylating isozyme to 37.8 %. The activity of soluble fructokinase isozyme dropped to 34.8 %. Thus also the ratio of particulate and soluble isozymes was dependent on the age of leaf tissue. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Genetic control of glucokinase activity in mice

Inbred strains of mice were surveyed for liver glucokinase activity. Mice of all strains studied could be distributed into three groups with high, intermediate, and low levels of enzyme activity. Genetic analysis using crosses and backcrosses with prototype high (C3H/HeJ) and low (RF/J) strains revealed that glucokinase activity was controlled by a single gene. The name glucokinase and gene symbol Gk are suggested for this gene. The Gk ^a allele designates the strain with high glucokinase activity, while Gk ^b represents the allele in the strain with the low enzyme activity. The interaction of fasting and diabetes on the activity of glucokinase in these two strains is described.Supported in part by United States Public Health Service Research Grant CA 05873 from the National Cancer Institute. The Jackson Laboratory is fully accredited by the American Association for the Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care.     

Role of connecting loop I in catalysis and allosteric regulation of human glucokinase

Glucokinase (GCK, hexokinase IV) is a monomeric enzyme with a single glucose binding site that displays steady‐state kinetic cooperativity, a functional characteristic that affords allosteric regulation of GCK activity. Structural evidence suggests that connecting loop I, comprised of residues 47–71, facilitates cooperativity by dictating the rate and scope of motions between the large and small domains of GCK. Here we investigate the impact of varying the length and amino acid sequence of connecting loop I upon GCK cooperativity. We find that sequential, single amino acid deletions from the C‐terminus of connecting loop I cause systematic decreases in cooperativity. Deleting up to two loop residues leaves the k_cat value unchanged; however, removing three or more residues reduces k_cat by 1000‐fold. In contrast, the glucose K_0.5 and K_D values are unaffected by shortening the connecting loop by up to six residues. Substituting alanine or glycine for proline‐66, which adopts a cis conformation in some GCK crystal structures, does not alter cooperativity, indicating that cis/trans isomerization of this loop residue does not govern slow conformational reorganizations linked to hysteresis. Replacing connecting loop I with the corresponding loop sequence from the catalytic domain of the noncooperative isozyme human hexokinase I (HK‐I) eliminates cooperativity without impacting the k_cat and glucose K_0.5 values. Our results indicate that catalytic turnover requires a minimal length of connecting loop I, whereas the loop has little impact upon the binding affinity of GCK for glucose. We propose a model in which the primary structure of connecting loop I affects cooperativity by influencing conformational dynamics, without altering the equilibrium distribution of GCK conformations.     

A novel galactosyl-binding lectin from the plasma of the blood clam,Anadara granosa (L) and a study of its combining site

Control Analysis has been carried out in the first steps of a rat liver glycolytic system. Attention has been focused on the effect of several glucose concentrations on the control, particularly regarding the role of glucokinase. From kinetic studies of the whole metabolic system we have obtained information on the flux variation under different glucose concentrations. This information together with the kinetics of glucokinase has allowed us to calculate Flux Control and Elasticity Coefficients for glucokinase and the Response Coefficient of the system with respect to glucose. The changes in of the value of Flux Control Coefficients demonstrates that in conditions of low glucose concentration, glucokinase is the main enzyme in controlling the flux through the pathway, but at high glucose concentration the control moves to phosphofructokinase. Next, we have compared our results with those obtained with the shortening and titration method, previously described (Torres, N.V., Mateo, F., Mélendez-Hevia, E. and Kacser, H., (1986) Biochem. J. 234, 169–174; Torres, N.V. and Meléndez-Hevia, E. 1991. Molec. Cell. Biochem. 101, 1–10). Furthermore, from knowledge of the enzyme kinetics of the system we have been able to build a model of the pathway that allows us computer similation of its behavior and calculation of the Flux Control Coefficient profile at different glucose concentrations. By the three methods the results correlate, supporting the use of the pathway substrate as external modulator of the metabolic system as a tool for practical application of Control Analysis.