Expression of ferritin gene in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mesembryanthemum crystallinum</Emphasis> plants under different supply with iron and different intensity of oxidative stress

In plants of the facultative halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. cultivated under climate-controlled conditions, expression of one of ferritin genes, McFer, the ortholog of arabidopsis AtFer1 gene was studied for the first time. The level of this gene expression occurring in response to oxidative stress and changes in the iron status was similar to that of AtFer1 gene. A dependence of McFer gene expression and ferritin content on the regime of plant supplying with Fe-EDTA on the background of medium salinity (300 mM NaCl), oxidative stress modeling by leaf treatment with paraquat (PQ, 100 μM), or in the presence of antioxidant spermidine (Spd, 1 mM) was analyzed. The level of gene expression was assessed by RT-PCR, whereas the content of ferritin by Western blotting, using the primary polyclonal antibody against pea ferritin. An enhanced production of superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide at leaf treatment with PQ activated gene expression and ferritin content, whereas ROS scavenging with the antioxidant Spd suppressed gene expression. It is concluded that ferritin deposits in the halophyte M. crystallinum, which we have observed earlier in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll and parenchyma of the vascular system, fulfill not only storage but also protective role by binding the excessive Fe²⁺, a catalyzer of OH^·− production.     

Regulation of Iron Homeostasis in Arabidopsis thaliana by the Clock Regulator Time for Coffee

In plants, iron homeostasis is tightly regulated to supply sufficient amounts of this metal for an optimal growth while preventing excess accumulation to avoid oxidative stress. To identify new regulators of iron homeostasis, a luciferase-based genetic screen using the Arabidopsis AtFer1 ferritin promoter as a target was developed. This screen identified TIME FOR COFFEE (TIC) as a regulator of AtFer1 gene expression. TIC was previously described as a nuclear regulator of the circadian clock. Mutants in the TIC gene exhibited a chlorotic phenotype rescued by exogenous iron addition and are hypersensitive to iron during the early stages of development. We showed that iron overload-responsive genes are regulated by TIC and by the central oscillator of the circadian clock. TIC represses their expression under low iron conditions, and its activity requires light and light/dark cycles. Regarding AtFer1, this repression is independent of the previously characterized cis-acting element iron-dependent regulatory sequence, known to be involved in AtFer1 repression. These results showed that the regulation of iron homeostasis in plants is a major output of the TIC- and central oscillator-dependent signaling pathways.     

定位于类囊体膜的PPF1在转基因拟南芥中的表达影响叶绿体的发育

PPF1是一个与植物营养生长相关的基因。它编码的产物可能是一个膜蛋白并与拟南芥叶绿体中的类囊体蛋白ALB3有很高的同源性。免疫电镜分析表明PPF1蛋白同样主要定位于类囊体膜 ,而且在短日照G2豌豆开花两周后仍发育良好的叶绿体中有很高的表达 ,在长日照豌豆同时期非正常叶绿体中丰度非常低。对转基因拟南芥和野生型植株的叶片衰老进程比较发现 ,PPF1在拟南芥中的过量表达可以延缓叶片的衰老 ,而用PPF1反义mRNA抑制拟南芥中的同源基因ALB3则明显加快叶片衰老速度。对转基因拟南芥的超微结构分析显示 ,PPF1在拟南芥中过量表达时 ,转基因植株的叶绿体比野生型植株的叶绿体大并含有更多的基粒和基质类囊体膜 ;相反 ,反义PPF1表达抑制其在拟南芥中的同源物时 ,转基因植株的叶绿体比野生型植株的叶绿体小并含有较少的基粒和发育较差的类囊体膜系统。这些数据表明叶绿体的发育状况与PPF1或拟南芥同源物ALB3的表达水平呈正相关。我们的结果提示PPF1基因可能通过控制叶绿体的发育状况来调节植物的发育。     

Chloroplast division in higher plants requires members of two functionally divergent gene families with homology to bacterial ftsZ.

The division of plastids is critical for viability in photosynthetic eukaryotes, but the mechanisms associated with this process are still poorly understood. We previously identified a nuclear gene from Arabidopsis encoding a chloroplast-localized homolog of the bacterial cell division protein FtsZ, an essential cytoskeletal component of the prokaryotic cell division apparatus. Here, we report the identification of a second nuclear-encoded FtsZ-type protein from Arabidopsis that does not contain a chloroplast targeting sequence or other obvious sorting signals and is not imported into isolated chloroplasts, which strongly suggests that it is localized in the cytosol. We further demonstrate using antisense technology that inhibiting expression of either Arabidopsis FtsZ gene (AtFtsZ1-1 or AtFtsZ2-1) in transgenic plants reduces the number of chloroplasts in mature leaf cells from 100 to one, indicating that both genes are essential for division of higher plant chloroplasts but that each plays a distinct role in the process. Analysis of currently available plant FtsZ sequences further suggests that two functionally divergent FtsZ gene families encoding differentially localized products participate in chloroplast division. Our results provide evidence that both chloroplastic and cytosolic forms of FtsZ are involved in chloroplast division in higher plants and imply that important differences exist between chloroplasts and prokaryotes with regard to the roles played by FtsZ proteins in the division process.     

Silencing of NbNAP1 encoding a plastidic SufB-like protein affects chloroplast development in Nicotiana benthamiana

It was previously shown that AtNAP1 is a plastidic SufB protein involved in Fe-S cluster assembly in Arabidopsis. In this study, we investigated the effects of depleting SufB protein from plant cells using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS). VIGS of NbNAP1 encoding a Nicotiana benthamiana homolog of AtNAP1 resulted in a leaf yellowing phenotype. NbNAP1 was expressed ubiquitously in plant tissues with the highest level in roots. A GFP fusion protein of the N-terminal region (M1-V103) of NbNAP1 was targeted to chloroplasts. Depletion of NbNAP1 resulted in reduced numbers of chloroplasts of reduced size. Mitochondria also seemed to be affected. Despite the reduced number and size of the chloroplasts in the NbNAP1 VIGS lines, the expression of many nuclear genes encoding chloroplast-targeted proteins and chlorophyll biosynthesis genes remained unchanged.     

Chloroplast development in Arabidopsis thaliana requires the nuclear-encoded transcription factor sigma B

Development of plastids into chloroplasts, the organelles of photosynthesis, is triggered by light. However, little is known of the factors involved in the complex coordination of light-induced plastid gene expression, which must be directed by both nuclear and plastid genomes. We have isolated an Arabidopsis mutant, abc1, with impaired chloroplast development, which results in a pale green leaf phenotype. The mutated nuclear gene encodes a sigma factor, SigB, presumably for the eubacterial-like plastid RNA polymerase. Our results provide direct evidence that a nuclear-derived prokaryotic-like SigB protein, plays a critical role in the coordination of the two genomes for chloroplast development.     

A plant-specific protein essential for blue-light-induced chloroplast movements

In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), light-dependent chloroplast movements are induced by blue light. When exposed to low fluence rates of light, chloroplasts accumulate in periclinal layers perpendicular to the direction of light, presumably to optimize light absorption by exposing more chloroplast area to the light. Under high light conditions, chloroplasts become positioned parallel to the incoming light in a response that can reduce exposure to light intensities that may damage the photosynthetic machinery. To identify components of the pathway downstream of the photoreceptors that mediate chloroplast movements (i.e. phototropins), we conducted a mutant screen that has led to the isolation of several Arabidopsis mutants displaying altered chloroplast movements. The plastid movement impaired1 (pmi1) mutant exhibits severely attenuated chloroplast movements under all tested fluence rates of light, suggesting that it is a necessary component for both the low- and high-light-dependant chloroplast movement responses. Analysis of pmi1 leaf cross sections revealed that regardless of the light condition, chloroplasts are more evenly distributed in leaf mesophyll cells than in the wild type. The pmi1-1 mutant was found to contain a single nonsense mutation within the open reading frame of At1g42550. This gene encodes a plant-specific protein of unknown function that appears to be conserved among angiosperms. Sequence analysis of the protein suggests that it may be involved in calcium-mediated signal transduction, possibly through protein-protein interactions.     

A maltose transporter from apple is expressed in source and sink tissues and complements the Arabidopsis maltose export-defective mutant

Prior to the cytosolic synthesis of transport sugars during transitory starch utilization, intermediate products of starch breakdown, such as maltose, must be exported from chloroplasts. Recent work in Arabidopsis indicates that a novel transporter mediates maltose transfer across the chloroplast inner envelope membrane. We cloned a gene from an apple cDNA library that is highly homologous with the Arabidopsis maltose transporter, MEX1. Expression levels of MdMEX determined by real-time PCR were low in the tips of growing shoots, higher in expanding leaves and maximal in mature leaves. Expression was also detected in fruits and roots, indicating a role for MdMEX in starch mobilization in sink tissues. The cDNA from apple was subcloned into an expression cassette between the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and the sGFP (green fluorescent protein) coding sequence. Plants of the Arabidopsis maltose excess1-1 mutant, which is homozygous for a defective MEX1 allele, were transformed with the 35S:MdMEX:GFP construct. Fluorescence of GFP was localized to chloroplasts, indicating that Arabidopsis recognized the predicted 55 amino acid chloroplast transit peptide in the apple protein. The phenotypes of several independently transformed lines were analyzed. The complemented plants were relieved of the severe stunting and chlorosis characteristic of mex1-1 plants. Furthermore, starch levels and concentrations of soluble sugars, leaf chlorophyll content and maximum quantum efficiency of PSII were restored to wild-type levels. MdMEX (Malus domestica maltose transporter) is the second member of the unique maltose transporter gene family.     

Phenotypic and Genetic Analysis of det2, a New Mutant That Affects Light-Regulated Seedling Development in Arabidopsis

The greening phenotypes produced by recessive mutations in a gene designated de-etiolated-2 (DET2) are described. Recessive mutations in the DET2 gene uncouple light signals from a number of light-dependent processes. det2 mutations result in dark-grown Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings with many characteristics of light-grown plants, including hypocotyl growth inhibition, cotyledon expansion, primary leaf initiation, anthocyanin accumulation, and derepression of light-regulated gene expression. In contrast to these morphological and gene expression changes, however, the chloroplast development program is not initiated in the dark in det2 mutants, suggesting that light-regulated gene expression precedes the differentiation of etioplasts to chloroplasts. det2 mutations thus reveal at least two classes of downstream light-regulated responses that differ in their timing and control mechanisms. Homozygous det2 mutations also affect photoperiodic responses in light-grown plants, including timing of flowering, dark adaptation of gene expression, and onset of leaf senescence. The phenotype of det1 det2 double mutants is additive, implying that DET1 and DET2 function in distinct pathways that affect downstream light-regulated genes. Furthermore, these pathways are not utilized solely during early seedling development but must also be required to regulate different aspects of the light developmental program during later stages of vegetative growth.     

A mutation in the Arabidopsis DET3 gene uncouples photoregulated leaf development from gene expression and chloroplast biogenesis

The genetic and phenotypic characterization of a new Arabidopsis mutant, de-etiolated -3, ( det 3), involved in light-regulated seedling development is described. A recessive mutation in the DET 3 gene uncouples light signals from a subset of light-dependent processes. The det 3 mutation causes dark-grown Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings to have short hypocotyls, expanded cotyledons, and differentiated leaves, traits characteristic of light-grown seedlings. Despite these morphological changes, however, the det 3 mutant does not develop chloroplasts or show elevated expression of nuclear- and chloroplast-encoded light-regulated mRNAs. The det 3 mutation thus uncovers a downstream branch of the light transduction pathways that separates leaf development from chloroplast differentiation and light-regulated gene expression. In addition, light-grown det 3 plants have reduced stature and apical dominance, suggesting that DET3 functions during growth in normal light conditions as well. The genetic interactions between mutations in det 1, det 2, and det 3 are described. The phenotypes of doubly mutant strains suggest that there are at least two parallel pathways controlling light-mediated development in Arabidopsis .     

拟南芥醛还原酶编码基因At3g04000表达模式分析及过量表达转基因植株获得

植物体内的α,β-不饱和活性醛类化合物对植物细胞具有毒害作用,清除这些α,β-不饱和活性醛类化合物对于植物细胞维持正常的生命活动至关重要。前人研究报道通过体外酶活测定和异源瞬时表达鉴定拟南芥 At3g04000基因编码的蛋白为 NADPH 依赖的叶绿体醛还原酶(Arabidopsis NADPH-dependent chloroplastic aldehyde reductases, AtChlADRs),推测其在清除叶绿体中长链(≥5)α,β-不饱和醛类物质中具有重要的功能。该研究主要构建了拟南芥 At3g04000基因的表达模式分析载体 ProAt3g04000：GUS、亚细胞定位分析载体At3g04000-EGFP 和过量表达载体 At3g04000-OE,并获得了转基因拟南芥,并通过实时定量 PCR 分析了At3g04000基因在拟南芥不同组织中的转录水平。结果表明：拟南芥 At3g04000基因在幼苗中的转录水平最高,在莲座叶、茎生叶、花序和角果中均有较高的转录水平;而在根部和茎秆中的转录水平较低。通过对ProAt3g04000：GUS 转基因植株的 GUS 染色分析可知,At3g04000基因在子叶、莲座叶和萼片的维管组织和保卫细胞中均有较强的表达,在根的维管组织中有较弱的表达。通过共聚焦显微镜对 At3g04000-EGFP 转基因植株的观察和分析发现,At3g04000不是定位于叶绿体中,而是定位在细胞质和细胞核中。该研究结果为深入研究拟南芥醛还原酶编码基因 At3g04000的功能奠定了基础。