外源中心体在哺乳动物胚胎发育中的遗传机制

中心体是一个非膜包被的半保留细胞器,由一对相互垂直的圆柱形中心粒及其周围大量的高电子密度的蛋白质-中心体基质(pericentriolar material,PCM)组成.在所有哺乳动物细胞中,中心体(centrosome)作为主要的微管组织中心(microtubule organizing centers,MTOCs),起到组装和稳定微管的关键功能.在大多数哺乳动物精子形成过程中,精子保留了近端中心粒,失去了大部分的中心体旁蛋白和远端中心粒,而在卵母细胞形成过程中两个中心粒被逐渐降解,主要的中心体旁蛋白被保留了下来,弥散于卵胞质中.受精后,在卵母细胞中精子中心粒被进一步降解,来源于卵母细胞和精子的中心体旁蛋白形成受精卵的MTOCs在胚胎分裂过程中行使功能.但在小鼠等啮齿类动物精子形成过程中,两个中心粒全部被降解,因此受精卵中的MTOCs主要由来源于卵母细胞中心体旁蛋白组成.在大多数哺乳动物核移植胚胎中.外源中心粒在胚胎1-细胞期即被降解,而是来源于供体细胞和受体卵母细胞的中心体旁蛋白形成重构胚的MTOCs指导纺锤体形成,中心粒是在囊胚期才从头合成的.在灵长类中,来源于精子的中心粒能与PCM一起组成典型的中心体在胚胎分裂过程中行使功能,但在其核移植胚胎中,体细胞中心体和去核卵母细胞中剩余的中心体旁蛋白不能有效的组装形成功能性中心体,这可能是灵长类哺乳动物体细胞克隆失败的一个关键原因. 成过程中,两个中心粒全部被降解,因此受精卵中的MTOCs主要由来源于卵母细胞中心体旁蛋白组成.在大多数哺乳动物核移植胚胎中.外源中心粒在胚胎1-细胞期即被降解,而是来源于供体细胞和受体卵母细胞的中心体旁蛋白形成重构胚的MTOCs指导纺锤体形成,中心粒是在囊胚期才从头合成的.在灵长类中,来源于精子的中心粒能与PCM一起组成典型的中心 在胚胎分裂过程中行使功能,但在其核移植胚胎中,体细胞中心体和去核卵母细胞中剩余的中心体旁蛋白不能有效的组装形成功能性中心体,这可能是灵长类哺乳动物体细胞克隆失败的一个关键原因. 成过程中,两个中心粒全部被降解,因此受精卵中的MTOCs主要由来源于卵母细胞中心体旁蛋白组成.在大多数哺乳动物核移植胚胎中.外源中心粒在胚胎1-细胞期即被降解,而是来源于供体细胞和受体卵母细胞的中心体旁蛋白形成重构胚的MTOCs指导纺锤体形成,中心粒是在囊胚期才从头合成的.在灵长类中,来源于精子的中心粒能与PCM一起组成典型的中心 在胚胎分裂过程中行使功能,但在其核移植胚胎中,体细胞中心体和去核卵母细胞中剩余的中心体旁蛋白不能有效的组     

母源物质对重编程作用研究进展

卵母细胞发生过程中会积累大量的物质,即所谓的母源物质(maternal materials),自然状态下,这些母源物质对受精以及之后的发育具有重要的生物学功能。雌雄配子融合后,精子核与卵母细胞中单倍体染色体组均会发生剧烈的表观遗传修饰变化,这个过程也同样发生在体细胞核移植到卵母细胞质之后,这种变化被称之为重编程。重编程奠定了新个体发生发育全部程序的基础,因此是一个备受重视的生物学过程。重编程包括DNA去甲基化、染色质重塑和组蛋白修饰等。受精后,卵母细胞与精子的基因组均会在一定时间和空间范围内经历相应的重编程过程,清除各自基因组在配子形成中保留的表观遗传学修饰,调控基因表达并形成正常发育的全能性胚胎。受精后,卵母细胞成熟中积累的多种母源物质聚集在雄原核周围,调控其基因组的重编程。体细胞核移植胚胎中供体细胞核注到去核卵母细胞后也将在卵母细胞中蛋白质、mRNA、酶类等母源物质的作用下进行重编程。现总结了母源物质对雄原核及供体细胞核重编程作用的研究进展,并探讨了母源物质作用的可能机制。     

钙信号在卵母细胞激活中的作用

钙信号是胞内主要的第二信使之一,发挥广泛的作用如细胞分裂、细胞凋亡等,对细胞的生命活动起着非常重要的作用。在精子和卵母细胞中,钙信号对精子获能、顶体反应、卵母细胞成熟、受精及卵裂等一系列复杂的过程有非常重要的影响。现就Ca2 在卵母细胞中的释放机制、信号转导途径、调控功能作一综述。     

蛙精子中心体的分离

中心体是动物和低等植物中构成有丝分裂器的重要结构和功能元件,是间期细胞质微管和分裂期纺锤体微管的组织中心。本文报道一种从蛙精子中分离中心体的简便方法:通过匀浆将精子尾部与头部脱离,用蔗糖离心去除脱落的尾部和杂质颗粒,从而得到纯化的精子头部。用含EGTA的低渗液使精核膨大,再以超声破碎,离心得到中心体的粗制品,以重复超声和离心去除染色质和中心体外围的线粒体,得到纯度较高的精子中心体。电镜观察和免疫荧光染色显示分离所得的中心体由一对中心粒和其外周物质组成。     

中心体蛋白Cenexin在大鼠精子发生过程中的表达特征

中心体蛋白Cenexin是成熟中心粒的唯一标志分子。为阐明中心粒在大鼠精子发生过程中的成熟以及功能,我们首先通过RT-PCR技术从大鼠睾丸组织中扩增出了Cenexin cDNA片段,原核表达重组蛋白后,用其免疫小鼠制备了高滴度的抗Cenexin的多克隆抗体,然后利用免疫荧光染色、Western Blot和半定量RT-PCR方法,研究了大鼠精子发生过程中Cenexin蛋白和基因的表达特征。结果显示Cenexin mRNA水平在精原细胞和精母细胞中较高,随后表达水平下降,而蛋白质分子在精原细胞到精子细胞中都定位于细胞的一个中心粒上,表示有成熟中心粒的存在,在长形精子细胞中该蛋白位于鞭毛的基体部。附睾的绝大多数成熟精子中Cenexin免疫染色消失。中心体蛋白Cenexin在精子变态期的表达变化可能与精子鞭毛形成的起始有关。     

中心体蛋白Cenexin在大鼠精子发生过程中的表达特征

中心体蛋白Cenexin是成熟中心粒的唯一标志分子。为阐明中心粒在大鼠精子发生中的成熟以及功能,我们首先通过RT－PCR技术从大鼠睾丸组织中扩增出了Cenexin cDNA片段,原核表达重组蛋白后,用其免疫小鼠制备了高滴度的抗Cenexin的多克隆抗体,然后利用免疫荧光染色、Western Blot和半定量RT－PCR方法,研究了大鼠精子发生过程中Cenexin蛋白和基因的表达特征。结果显示Cenexin mRNA水平在精原细胞和精母细胞中较高,随后表达水平下降,而蛋白质分子在精原细胞到精子细胞中都定位于细胞的一个中心粒上,表示有成熟中心粒的存在,在长形精子细胞中该蛋白位于鞭毛的基体部。附睾的绝大多数成熟精子中Cenexin免疫染色消失。中心体蛋白Cenexin在精子变态期的表达变化可能与精子鞭毛形成的起始有关。     

精子头后部质膜融合蛋白fertilin的研究进展

精子头后部(或赤道区)表面fertilin糖蛋白由相关的两个跨膜亚基α和β构成异二体形式。这两个亚基前体均含有金属蛋白酶区(met-alloprotease domain)和整联蛋白配体区(disin-tegrin domain),属于ADAMs gene家族。α和β前体分别在睾丸和附睾中从上述两区域连接处水解后,得到成熟型亚基。受精时,穿过透明带的顶体反应后精子借助β亚基的disintegrin肽段与卵母细胞表面的整联蛋白结合,同时fertilin结构发生变化,暴露出α亚基上潜在的融合肽段(90—111aa),并介导精子与卵母细胞发生质膜融合,最终完成受精过程。     

精子和卵母细胞质量控制对山羊卵胞质内精子注射(ICSI)受精的影响

以体外成熟卵母细胞为材料研究了精子来源及制动处理方法、卵母细胞质量及注射后激活等因素对山羊ICSI效果的影响.结果说明,附睾头、体和尾精子ICSI后的受精率、卵裂率和桑椹胚/囊胚发育率与射出的鲜精精子都没有明显差异(p＞0.05),但带下注射时附睾头和体精子的受精和发育率显著低于附睾尾和射精精子.在以4种不同方法致死的精子中,室温保存24h的死精子ICSI受精、卵裂和桑椹/囊胚率虽然低于对照组,但是明显高于其它方式致死的精子;5℃保存15天的死精子受精和发育效果最差.0.0005%Triton X-100处理精子的受精率、卵裂率和桑椹/囊胚率显著(p＜0.05)高于制动对照组、不制动对照组和其它浓度组.经高渗处理法检测质量好的卵母细胞ICSI受精和胚胎发育效果显著好于质量差的卵母细胞.与对照组相比,A23187和Ionomycin/6-DMAP激活处理均显著(p＜0.05)提高ICSI的受精率、卵裂率和桑椹/囊胚发育率.因此,精子在附睾内的成熟过程主要与其获得与卵质膜融合能力有关;精液保存方法对精子受精能力的损伤程度有很大差异;适当浓度的Triton X-100处理可模仿精子制动;卵母细胞质量是影响ICSI效果的重要因素;注射精子后激活卵母细胞能保证山羊ICSI的受精效果.     

卵母细胞透明带异常及其对助孕结局影响的研究进展

人类透明带(zona pellucida,ZP)是在卵泡发生过程中由卵母细胞和颗粒细胞共同分泌的由ZP1-ZP4四种糖蛋白分子组成的高度有序结构,它与卵母细胞的成熟、受精、胚胎发育及妊娠结局等预后紧密关联。许多生殖中心实验室发现有些患者的卵出现全部或部分的透明带异常,而且不同实验室发现的透明带异常类型各异。研究发现这些透明带异常与卵母细胞受精、胚胎发育及临床结局有一定的相关性。本文综述了关于透明带异常及其对卵母细胞受精、胚胎发育潜能和临床结局的影响的研究进展。     

中国鲎精子发生的研究: Ⅰ.精子的发生过程

利用光镜和电镜技术,结合细胞化学方法研究了中国鲎（Ｔａｃｈｙｐｌｅｕｓ ｔｒｉｄｅｎｔａｔｕｓ）精子发生过程．结果表明：中国鲎精子发生可划分为精原细胞、初级精母细胞、次级精母细胞、精子细胞及精子五个时期。在精子发生中,出现顶体丝结构,这是鲎精子发生的一个重要特征。页体由顶囊和亚顶体间隙组成。顶体丝由顶体囊底部发出,穿过亚顶体间隙,贯穿核中央部分的通道．沿核底部穿出,绕核缠绕,形成约２８匝的百体丝螺圈。这一特点可能与精子在受精时必须穿越厚的卵膜密切相关。成熟精子头部如梨形,前端覆盖有吸盘状后帽,头部长约４μｍ,尾部鞭毛长达３５μｍ、鞭毛为９ ×２结构,在鞭毛基部有一对中心粒。     

Centrosome dynamics during mammalian oocyte maturation with a focus on meiotic spindle formation

Oocyte maturation is an important process required to achieve optimal oocyte quality, and later affects fertilization potential and subsequent embryo development. The maturation process includes synchronized nuclear and cytoplasmic remodeling, in which cytoskeletal and centrosome dynamics play an important role and significantly participate in cellular signaling. Centrosome remodeling within the maturing oocyte is essential for accurate meioisis I and II spindle formation, specifically to separate chromosomes accurately during the two successive, highly asymmetric meiotic cell divisions. Centrosomal abnormalities result in inaccurate microtubule organization and inaccurate chromosome alignment, with failures in chromosome segregation leading to aneuploidy and chromosomal abnormalities. The present review is focused on cytoskeletal and centrosome remodeling during oocyte maturation, with specific attention to γ-tubulin, pericentrin, the Nuclear Mitotic Apparatus (NuMA) protein, and microtubule organization. Species-specific differences will be discussed for rodent (mouse) and non-rodent (bovine, porcine) species, and for human oocytes.     

Biogenesis of the centrosome during mammalian gametogenesis and fertilization

Summary Mammalian gametogenesis results in the production of highly specialized cells, sperm and oocytes, that are complementary in their arsenal of organelles and molecules necessary for normal embryonic development. Consequently, some of the zygotic structures, as illustrated in this review on the centrosome, are a combination of complementary paternal and maternal contributions. Mammalian oocytes are deprived of their centrioles during oogenesis, yet at the same time they generate a huge cytoplasmic reserve of centrosomal proteins. The active centrosome of spermatogenic stem cells is reduced to a single centriole that does not possess microtubule-nucle-ating activity. This centrosomal activity is restored at fertilization, when the sperm centriole is released into the oocyte cytoplasm, from which it attracts the oocyte-derived proteins of pericentriolar material and ultimately converts itself into an active zygotic centrosome. Subsequently, the microtubules around the zygotic centrosome are organized into a radial array called the sperm aster, that guides the apposition of male and female pronuclei, and the union of paternal and maternal genomes in the cytoplasm of a fertilized oocyte. The original sperm centriole duplicates and gives rise to the first mitotic spindle. This biparental mode of centrosome inheritance is seen in most mammals, except for rodents, where both centrioles are degraded during spermiogenesis and the zygotic centrosome is organized without any paternal contributions. The studies of centrosomal inheritance at fertilization provide the platform for designing new safe methods of assisted-reproduction and infertility treatments in humans.     

Centrosome inheritance in the parthenogenetic egg of the collembolan Folsomia candida

Unfertilized eggs commonly lack centrioles, which are usually provided by the male gamete at fertilization, and are unable to assemble functional reproducing centrosomes. However, some insect species lay eggs that develop to adulthood without a contribution from sperm. We report that the oocyte of the parthenogenetic collembolan Folsomia candida is able to self-assemble microtubule-based asters in the absence of pre-existing maternal centrosomes. The asters, which develop near the innermost pole of the meiotic apparatus, interact with the female chromatin to form the first mitotic spindle. The appearance of microtubule-based asters in the cytoplasm of the activated Folsomia oocyte might represent a conserved mechanism for centrosome formation during insect parthenogenesis. We also report that the architecture of the female meiotic apparatus and the structure of the mitotic spindles during the early embryonic divisions are unusual in comparison with that of insects.This work was made possible by grants from PAR (University of Siena) and PRIN to G.C.     

The role of Ca2+ in oocyte activation during In Vitro fertilization: Insights into potential therapies for rescuing failed fertilization

At fertilization the mature mammalian oocyte is activated to begin development by a sperm-induced series of increases in the cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration. These so called Ca²⁺ oscillations, or repetitive Ca²⁺ spikes, are also seen after intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and are primarily triggered by a sperm protein called phospholipase Czeta (PLCζ). Whilst ICSI is generally an effective way to fertilizing human oocytes, there are cases where oocyte activation fails to occur after sperm injection. Many such cases appear to be associated with a PLCζ deficiency. Some IVF clinics are now attempting to rescue such cases of failed fertilization by using artificial means of oocyte activation such as the application of Ca²⁺ ionophores. This review presents the scientific background for these therapies and also considers ways to improve artificial oocyte activation after failed fertilization.     

Facteurs paternels influençant le développement embryonnaire

The influence of sperm factors on early human embryonic development has been shown through the production of lower quality embryos in case of in vitro fertilization (IVF) for male infertility when compared to tubal infertility. Numerous factors may be implied in this effect. Indeed, zygotic centrosome, cellular organizer having a key role in mitosis, is exclusively from paternal origin and some IVF failures have correlated to centrosome deficiencies. A sperm cytosolic protein, oscillin, induces oocyte activation after sperm-egg fusion and could be responsible of clivage retardations observed in sperm abnormalities. Paternal chromosomal abnormalities, shown in as much as 8% of severe oligospermia, could lead to development blockage of the embryos. Last, genome imprinting during spermatogenesis, could be impaired in testicular dysfunctions, and thus the embryos could have low developmental abilities. However, it must be pointed out that no influence of sperm quality has been found using intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) procedures. Thus we can postulate that this technique alleviate the problem found with IVF. Thus the factor involved in the paternal effect on early embryogenesis is likely oocyte activation     

“This is where it all started” – the pivotal role of PLCζ within the sophisticated process of mammalian reproduction: a systemic review

Mammalian reproduction is one of the most complex and fascinating biological phenomenon, which aims to transfer maternal and paternal genetic material to the next generation. At the end of oogenesis and spermatogenesis, both haploid gametes contain a single set of chromosomes ready to form the zygote, the first cell of the newly developing individual. The mature oocyte and spermatozoa remain in a quiescent state, during which the oocyte is characterized by nuclear and cytoplasmic arrest, while the spermatozoa necessitates further maturation within the epididymis and female reproductive track prior to egg fertilization. Either in vivo or in vitro, the sperm initiates a series of irreversible biochemical and physiological modifications in the oocyte. The earliest detected signal after fertilization is cytosolic Ca²⁺ oscillations, a prerequisite step for embryo development. These oscillations trigger the release of the oocyte from the second meiosis arrest towards embryogenesis, also known as “oocyte activation”. Phospholipase C zeta (PLCζ) is a unique sperm-soluble protein responsible for triggering the InsP₃/Ca²⁺ pathway within the oocyte, leading to Ca²⁺ oscillations and consequently to embryo development. The specific structure of PLCζ (compared to other PLCs) enables its specialized activity via the preserved X and Y catalytic domains, as well as distinct features such as rapid onset, high sensitivity to Ca²⁺ and cession of oscillations upon zygote formation. The emerging discoveries of PLCζ have stimulated studies focusing on the possible clinical applications of this protein in male infertility evaluation and management during IVF/ICSI. Fertilization failure is attributed to lack of oocyte second meiosis resumption, suggesting that ICSI failure may be related to impaired PLCζ activity. Microinjection of recombinant human PLCζ to human oocytes after ICSI fertilization failure may trigger Ca²⁺ oscillations and achieve successful fertilization, offering new hope for couples traditionally referred to sperm donation. However, more studies are still required prior to the routine implementation of this approach in the clinic. Directions for future studies are discussed.     

Microtubule distribution during fertilization in the rabbit.

The distribution of microtubules was studied during fertilization of the rabbit oocyte by immunofluorescence microscopy after staining with an anti-alpha-tubulin antibody. In ovulated oocytes, microtubules were found exclusively in the meiotic spindle. At fertilization, the paternal centrosome generated sperm astral microtubules. During pronuclear development, the sperm aster increased in size, and microtubules extended from the male pronucleus to the egg center and towards the female pronucleus. These observations indicate that microtubules emanating from the sperm centrosome were involved in the movements leading to the union of the male and female pronuclei. At late pronuclear stage, microtubules surrounded the adjacent pronuclei. The mitotic spindle that emerged from the perinuclear microtubules contained broad anastral poles.     

The Origin of the Second Centriole in the Zygote of Drosophila melanogaster

Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar material (PCM). However, the sperm and the oocyte modify or lose their centrosomes. Consequently, how the zygote establishes its first centrosome, and in particular, the origin of the second zygotic centriole, is uncertain. Drosophila melanogaster spermatids contain a single centriole called the Giant Centriole (GC) and a Proximal centriole-like (PCL) structure whose function is unknown. We found that, like the centriole, the PCL loses its protein markers at the end of spermiogenesis. After fertilization, the first two centrioles are observed via the recruitment of the zygotic PCM proteins and are seen in asterless mutant embryos that cannot form centrioles. The zygote’s centriolar proteins label only the daughter centrioles of the first two centrioles. These observations demonstrate that the PCL is the origin for the second centriole in the Drosophila zygote and that a paternal centriole precursor, without centriolar proteins, is transmitted to the egg during fertilization.     

Surface alterations of the bovine oocyte and its investments during and after maturation and fertilization in vitro

Surface characteristics of the bovine oocyte and its investments before, during, and after maturation, and fertilization in vitro were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Oocyte diameters were also measured during SEM analysis of the oocyte. The cumulus cells manifested a compact structure with minimal intercellular spaces among them in the immature oocytes. These became fully expanded with increased intercellular spaces after maturation in vitro, but contracted again after fertilization. The zona pellucida (ZP) showed a fibrous, open mesh-like structure in the maturing and matured oocytes. The size and number of meshes on the ZP decreased dramatically after fertilization. The vitelline surface of immature oocytes was characterized by distribution of tongue-shaped protrusions (TSPs) varying in density. After 10 and 22 hr of maturation incubation, oocyte surface microvilli (MV) increased to become the predominant surface structure, and TSPs decreased substantially. The vitelline surface of fertilized oocytes (at 6 and 20 hr) was similar to that of the matured oocytes, but unfertilized oocytes had less dense MV than did fertilized oocytes (at 20 hr). The diameter of the oocytes decreased from 99 to 80 μm during maturation and increased to 106 μm after insemination (P < 0.05). Membrane maturation was characterized by surface changes from a TSP-predominant pattern to a MV-predominant pattern. Thus, the bovine oocyte maturation process was found to involve the expansion of cumulus cells and the maturation of the ZP, which changes dramatically upon fertilization. Also, volumetric changes occurred in ooplasm processed for SEM following oocyte maturation and insemination. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.