肠道菌群影响宿主肥胖的研究进展

越来越多的研究结果表明,肠道菌群与宿主消化、呼吸、内分泌、心血管、神经等系统发生的疾病密切相关。目前,全世界患肥胖和Ⅱ型糖尿病的人逐渐增多。肠道菌群的平衡有利于维持宿主正常的能量代谢过程,而肠道菌群失调使机体产生慢性炎症反应及胰岛素抵抗,从而导致肥胖和Ⅱ型糖尿病等代谢性疾病的发生。本文综述了肠道菌群影响肥胖的机制,以及通过调控肠道菌群改善肥胖的方法。     

肠道微生物对肥胖影响

肠道微生物是哺乳动物最密集的微生物群落,也是最多样化的微生物群落之一。随着宏基因组学的不断发展,肠道微生物成为热门的研究领域。肠道微生物具有保护和代谢等功能,在胰岛素抵抗和肥胖等疾病中发挥重要作用。本文介绍了肠道微生物及其代谢物通过调节食欲、神经递质合成分泌、炎性反应进而调节肥胖,探讨了肠道微生物的影响因素,展望了肠道微生物对治疗人类肥胖的应用前景。     

肠道菌群与肥胖关系的研究进展

西方化的高脂饮食方式造成了越来越多的肥胖人群。高脂饮食在一定程度上可以改变肠道菌群的结构组成和功能,促进宿主对食物营养的吸收,从而增加体重形成肥胖。高脂饮食诱导的肥胖者肠道菌群的改变会导致宿主能量吸收增加,肠道通透性和炎症增加,而有减肥功能的短链脂肪酸合成能力下降。最近研究发现肠道菌群也可以通过影响中枢神经系统,尤其是下丘脑相关基因的表达来控制食欲,从而调控肥胖的形成。本文系统介绍了最近几年高脂饮食诱导肥胖的研究,总结了一些与肥胖形成有密切关系的肠道菌群以及其在肥胖形成中的作用机制,为进一步研究肠道菌群与肥胖之间的调控作用奠定了基础。最后总结了肠道菌群可以作为一个预防和治疗肥胖的有效靶点,可以通过在食物中添加有益菌或者通过菌群移植来治疗肥胖。     

高脂膳食对肥胖易感和肥胖抵抗大鼠学习记忆能力的影响及机制

经过长期的高脂膳食后并非所有个体都会发生肥胖,还有些个体会产生肥胖抵抗现象。高脂膳食影响海马依赖的学习记忆等认知功能已被广泛证实,但目前关于高脂膳食对肥胖抵抗个体学习记忆能力影响的研究仍较少见。本文旨在对比研究高脂膳食对肥胖易感（obesity-prone, OP）和肥胖抵抗（obesity-resistant, OR）大鼠空间学习记忆能力的影响,并探讨其潜在的可能机制。Morris水迷宫结果显示,肥胖易感大鼠的学习能力显著低于对照大鼠和肥胖抵抗大鼠,但3组大鼠的记忆功能无显著性差异。Western印迹结果显示,与对照组相比,肥胖易感和肥胖抵抗大鼠海马内脑源性神经营养因子(BDNF)、血管内皮细胞生长因子(VEGF)和突触素(SYN)的含量均显著降低,丙二醛(MDA)和白介素1β(IL-1β)的含量均显著升高;且肥胖易感大鼠海马内上述蛋白质含量的变化更明显。免疫荧光染色和激光共聚焦显微镜扫描结果均显示,肥胖易感大鼠的海马神经发生水平显著低于肥胖抵抗大鼠和对照大鼠,但肥胖抵抗大鼠的海马神经发生水平与对照大鼠相比未见显著性变化。这些结果提示,高脂膳食可能是通过降低海马内突触可塑相关蛋白质的表达和神经发生,以及加剧炎症反应来损害肥胖易感大鼠的空间学习能力,而对肥胖抵抗大鼠的学习记忆能力影响不显著。     

高脂膳食对肥胖易感和肥胖抵抗大鼠学习记忆能力的影响及机制北大核心CSCD

经过长期的高脂膳食后并非所有个体都会发生肥胖,还有些个体会产生肥胖抵抗现象。高脂膳食影响海马依赖的学习记忆等认知功能已被广泛证实,但目前关于高脂膳食对肥胖抵抗个体学习记忆能力影响的研究仍较少见。本文旨在对比研究高脂膳食对肥胖易感(obesity-prone,OP)和肥胖抵抗(obesity-resistant,OR)大鼠空间学习记忆能力的影响,并探讨其潜在的可能机制。Morris水迷宫结果显示,肥胖易感大鼠的学习能力显著低于对照大鼠和肥胖抵抗大鼠,但3组大鼠的记忆功能无显著性差异。Western印迹结果显示,与对照组相比,肥胖易感和肥胖抵抗大鼠海马内脑源性神经营养因子(BDNF)、血管内皮细胞生长因子(VEGF)和突触素(SYN)的含量均显著降低,丙二醛(MDA)和白介素1β(IL-1β)的含量均显著升高;且肥胖易感大鼠海马内上述蛋白质含量的变化更明显。免疫荧光染色和激光共聚焦显微镜扫描结果均显示,肥胖易感大鼠的海马神经发生水平显著低于肥胖抵抗大鼠和对照大鼠,但肥胖抵抗大鼠的海马神经发生水平与对照大鼠相比未见显著性变化。这些结果提示,高脂膳食可能是通过降低海马内突触可塑相关蛋白质的表达和神经发生,以及加剧炎症反应来损害肥胖易感大鼠的空间学习能力,而对肥胖抵抗大鼠的学习记忆能力影响不显著。     

肠道微生物和肠-脑轴在肥胖发展中的作用

肥胖和相关代谢综合征已成为全球最突出的健康问题之一,肠道微生物已被证明参与肥胖的发展,并可能对肥胖的发展和其干预治疗等提供重要的见解。最近的研究表明,肠道微生物和大脑的相互作用可能是肥胖的后果或解释因素,肠-脑轴是它们相互作用的联络枢纽。此外,肠道微生物可以通过肠道激素（包括ghrelin）以及迷走神经连接（影响能量消耗和CNS中与饮食行为相关的区域）来影响肠-脑轴,从而改变宿主行为。同时,肠道微生物代谢物和其产物还可以充当信号分子并调节肠内分泌细胞的激素分泌,如GLP1和PYY,从而调节食欲、肠道运动、能量吸收和储存以及能量消耗等摄食相关行为,进而影响肥胖的发展。所以,理解这些信号和激素作用并从药理学方法增强它们,可能为治疗肥胖提供一种重要的途径。     

膳食纤维对肥胖相关的肠道微生态的影响

研究发现,肠道微生态的改变与肥胖等代谢性疾病相关。膳食纤维作为饮食的一部分,通过在肠道的作用改变肠道菌群比例及丰度、改善炎症反应、调节肠道激素及脂质代谢来改善肥胖,但膳食纤维在防治肥胖方面的推荐摄入量、种类及与肠道菌群的作用机制还需进一步研究。本文对膳食纤维对肥胖相关的肠道微生态的影响的研究进展进行了综述。     

肥胖诱发胰岛素抵抗的炎性机制

肥胖可诱发一系列慢性代谢性疾病,如2型糖尿病、血脂障碍、高血压和非酒精性脂肪肝等.这些疾病构成了当今世界人类健康的极大威胁.胰岛素抵抗是这些疾病的共有特征.胰岛素抵抗的发生与慢性低度系统炎性密切相关,涉及多条炎性信号通路的激活和胰岛素信号转导的缺陷.本文综述了肥胖、炎性与胰岛素抵抗之间的本质联系,以及肥胖诱发胰岛素抵抗的炎性机制,以期为肥胖相关疾病的防治提供重要参考.     

肥胖基因的研究进展

肥胖症是摄食和能耗平衡机制的失调,可引起多种疾病,如Ⅱ型糖尿病、高血压、高血脂和癌症等.肥胖基因的克隆为研究肥胖的机制提供了重要途径.肥胖基因编码消瘦激素,作用于下丘脑,控制代谢、能耗和生殖系统.实验表明,重组的消瘦激素具有使肥胖基因缺陷和神经肽Y缺陷小鼠代谢和体重正常化,恢复肥胖基因缺陷小鼠生育能力等活性.进一步研究肥胖基因作用机制,开发针对各种缺陷的药物,能使肥胖症的治疗成为可能.     

肠道菌群在肥胖发病中的作用

近十年来,肠道菌群在人类许多疾病发病机制中的潜在作用引起了人们的广泛关注。已被证实肠道菌群与肥胖和肥胖相关的代谢性疾病的发生发展密切相关。与肥胖相关的肠道微生物可调控宿主的能量代谢、胰岛素抵抗和脂肪组织堆积,这些在肥胖发生中都起着至关重要的作用。本综述重点介绍了代谢紊乱中肠道菌群组成的变化以及肠道菌群在肥胖发病机制中的作用,包括能量代谢、中枢食欲、免疫系统和宿主昼夜节律。在不久的将来,该领域的研究将为治疗肥胖及其并发症开辟新的途径。     

Serum and gene expression levels of leptin and adiponectin in rats susceptible or resistant to diet-induced obesity

The aim of the present study was to identify the role of leptin and adiponectin in the development of resistance or susceptibility to diet-induced obesity in rats. For this purpose, male Wistar rats were fed with standard laboratory diet (control group) or cafeteria diet. After 15 days, two groups of rats with different response respect to the cafeteria diet were identified, and were assigned as diet-induced obesity (DIO) and diet resistant (DR) rats. The high-fat diet induced a very significant increase in both body and fat mass weight in DIO group. However, DR rats, gained even less weight than control-fed animals. Food intake was increased in cafeteria-fed rats (both DIO and DR) in comparison to control group; but hyperphagia was higher in DIO rats. In addition, feed efficiency (the ratio of weight gained to calories consumed) was significantly decreased in DR as compared to DIO rats. Regarding leptin, a significant increase in both adipose tissue gene expression and serum levels was observed in DIO rats in comparison with other groups (control and DR). A significant increase in both adiponectin circulating levels and adipose tissue mRNA expression was also observed in DIO animals as compared with the other groups. These data suggest that the susceptibility to obesity of DIO rats might be secondary, at least in part, to an earlier development of leptin resistance, which could lead to alterations in food intake (hyperphagia) and energetic metabolism. However, neither changes in leptin or adiponectin seem to be involved in the adaptive mechanisms that confer resistance to high fat intake.     

Gut microbiota-mediated xanthine metabolism is associated with resistance to high-fat diet-induced obesity

Resistance to high-fat diet-induced obesity (DIR) has been observed in mice fed a high-fat diet and may provide a potential approach for anti-obesity drug discovery. However, the metabolic status, gut microbiota composition, and its associations with DIR are still unclear. Here, ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based urinary metabolomic and 16S rRNA gene sequencing-based fecal microbiome analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship between metabolic profile, gut microbiota composition, and body weight of C57BL/6J mice on chow or a high-fat diet for 8 weeks. PICRUSt analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences predicted the functional metagenomes of gut bacteria. The results demonstrated that feeding a high-fat diet increased body weight and fasting blood glucose of high-fat diet-induced obesity (DIO) mice and altered the host-microbial co-metabolism and gut microbiota composition. In DIR mice, high-fat diet did not increase body weight while fasting blood glucose was increased significantly compared to chow fed mice. In DIR mice, the urinary metabolic pattern was shifted to a distinct direction compared to DIO mice, which was mainly contributed by xanthine. Moreover, high-fat diet caused gut microbiota dysbiosis in both DIO and DIR mice, but in DIR mice, the abundance of Bifidobacteriaceae, Roseburia, and Escherichia was not affected compared to mice fed a chow diet, which played an important role in the pathway coverage of FormylTHF biosynthesis I. Meanwhile, xanthine and pathway coverage of FormylTHF biosynthesis I showed significant positive correlations with mouse body weight. These findings suggest that gut microbiota-mediated xanthine metabolism correlates with resistance to high-fat DIO.     

Central orexin sensitivity, physical activity, and obesity in diet-induced obese and diet-resistant rats

Nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), the most variable component of energy expenditure, can account for differential capacities for human weight gain. Also highly variable, spontaneous physical activity (SPA) may similarly affect weight balance in animals. In the following study, we utilized the rat model of obesity, the diet-induced obese (DIO) rat, as well as the diet-resistant (DR) rat strain, to investigate how access to a high-fat diet alters SPA and the associated energy expenditure (i.e., NEAT). DIO and DR rats showed no differences in the amount of SPA before access to the high-fat diet. After 29 days on a high-fat diet, the DIO rats showed significant decreases in SPA, whereas the DR rats did not. Next, we wanted to determine whether the DIO and DR rats showed differential sensitivity to microinjections of orexin into the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Unilateral guide cannulae were implanted, aimed at the PVN. Orexin A (0, 0.125, 0.25, and 1.0 nmol in 500 nl) was microinjected through the guide cannula into the PVN, then SPA and energy expenditure were measured for 2 h. Using the response to vehicle as a baseline, the DR rats showed significantly greater increase in NEAT compared with the DIO rats. These data indicate that diet-induced obesity is associated with decreases in SPA and a lack of increase in NEAT. A putative mechanism for changes in NEAT that accompany obesity is a decreased sensitivity to the NEAT-activating effects of neuropeptides such as orexin.     

Ventromedial Hypothalamic NPY Y2 Receptor in the Maintenance of Body Weight in Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice

This study examined changes in neuropeptide Y (NPY) Y2 receptor binding in the brains of C57BL/6 mice in response to different levels of high-fat diets via three dietary intervention methods: high-fat diet, switching from high- to low-fat diet and finally, energy restricted high-fat diet. Forty-five C57Bl/6 male mice were fed a high-fat diet for 8 weeks and then classified as diet-induced obese (DIO) or diet-resistant (DR) mice according to the highest and lowest body weight gainers, respectively. The DIO and DR mice were then randomly divided into three groups each and either continued on their high-fat diet ad libitum (DIO-H and DR-H), changed to a low-fat diet (DIO-L and DR-L) or pair-fed via energy restricted high-fat diet (DIO-P and DR-P) for a further 6 weeks. During the course of this study, body weight, energy intake and plasma peptide YY (PYY) were measured. The study revealed that the replacement of a high-fat diet with a low-fat diet was associated with a significant lowering of ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) Y2 receptor binding in both the DIO-L and DR-L mice (−37%, −36%), and also a lowered plasma PYY level in the DIO-L mice (−25%). Despite a continued consumption of the high-fat diet, energy restricted pair feeding caused a lower VMH Y2 receptor binding in the obese mice (DIO-P) following weight loss compared to the DR-P mice (−14%). In conclusion, this study showed that changing diets from high- to low-fat can significantly lower the VMH Y2 receptor binding irrespective to the obesity phenotype. Energy restriction, even while on high-fat feeding, can cause a lower VMH Y2 receptor binding compared to DR mice even after body weight loss to similar levels. This suggests either a possible intrinsic nature of the DIO mice or a body weight set-point re-establishment to drive body weight regain.     

Role of adipogenic and thermogenic genes in susceptibility or resistance to develop diet-induced obesity in rats

The aim of the present work was to assess whether changes in adipose tissue gene expression related with adipogenesis and/or thermogenesis could be involved in the mechanism conferring susceptibility or resistance to develop obesity in high-fat fed outbreed rats. For this purpose, male Wistar rats were fed with standard laboratory diet (control group) or high fat diet. After 15 days, two groups of rats with significant differences on body weight gain in response to the high fat diet were characterized and identified as diet-induced obesity (DIO) and diet resistant (DR) rats. A significant increase in visceral white adipose tissue (WAT) PPARgamma and aP2 (p < 0.05) mRNA levels associated to a decrease in RARgamma expression (p < 0.05) was observed in DIO rats, suggesting an increase of adipogenesis. Furthermore, our data showed a marked increase in brown adipose tissue (BAT) of UCP1 mRNA in DIO animals (p < 0.01) (without affecting PGC-1alpha gene expression), whereas no changes were found in WAT UCP2 gene expression. All these data suggest that the variations found in the expression pattern of PPARgamma, aP2 and RARgamma by high-fat diet could be involved, at least in part, in the differences in body weight gain and adiposity observed between DR and DIO animals. The compensatory adaptations through the increase in energy expenditure by changes on the expression levels of UCP1 seem not to be enough to avoid the obesity onset in the DIO group.     

Different functional responsibility of the small intestine to high-fat/high-energy diet determined the expression of obesity-prone and obesity-resistant phenotypes in rats

The objective of the present experiment was to assess the involvement of small intestine in expression of susceptibility or resistance to the high-fat/high-energy diet. The investigation was carried out in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats fed either standard laboratory diet (3.2 kcal/g, 9.5 % fat) or high-fat (HF) diet (4.04 kcal/g, 30 % fat) for 4 weeks as well as in HF rats that were retrospectively designated on the bases of their higher or lower weight gain as sensitive (DIO) or resistant (DR) to obesity. Our results revealed in HF group significant increase in energy intake, food efficiency, weight gain and Lee s index of obesity. Moreover, in comparison with controls, a significantly increased duodenal and jejunal alkaline phosphatase (AP) and alpha-glucosidase activity as well as hypertrophy of jejunal mucosa (increased protein/DNA ratio) were observed in HF fed rats. In contrast, intestinal function was inversely related to energy intake or to the development of adiposity in DIO vs. DR rats. The DR rats had significantly greater AP and alpha-glucosidase activity and more pronounced suppression of energy intake than obese DIO rats. It indicates that the increase of enzyme activities and the lowered effectiveness of nutrient absorption might be a significant factor preventing the expression of obesity proneness. This information contributes to a better understanding of a complex interaction between HF diet feeding and small intestinal adaptability, which determines the energy homeostasis and predict the ability to resist or develop obesity in these phenotypes.     

Changes in gene expression foreshadow diet-induced obesity in genetically identical mice

High phenotypic variation in diet-induced obesity in male C57BL/6J inbred mice suggests a molecular model to investigate non-genetic mechanisms of obesity. Feeding mice a high-fat diet beginning at 8 wk of age resulted in a 4-fold difference in adiposity. The phenotypes of mice characteristic of high or low gainers were evident by 6 wk of age, when mice were still on a low-fat diet; they were amplified after being switched to the high-fat diet and persisted even after the obesogenic protocol was interrupted with a calorically restricted, low-fat chow diet. Accordingly, susceptibility to diet-induced obesity in genetically identical mice is a stable phenotype that can be detected in mice shortly after weaning. Chronologically, differences in adiposity preceded those of feeding efficiency and food intake, suggesting that observed difference in leptin secretion is a factor in determining phenotypes related to food intake. Gene expression analyses of adipose tissue and hypothalamus from mice with low and high weight gain, by microarray and qRT-PCR, showed major changes in the expression of genes of Wnt signaling and tissue re-modeling in adipose tissue. In particular, elevated expression of SFRP5, an inhibitor of Wnt signaling, the imprinted gene MEST and BMP3 may be causally linked to fat mass expansion, since differences in gene expression observed in biopsies of epididymal fat at 7 wk of age (before the high-fat diet) correlated with adiposity after 8 wk on a high-fat diet. We propose that C57BL/6J mice have the phenotypic characteristics suitable for a model to investigate epigenetic mechanisms within adipose tissue that underlie diet-induced obesity.     

Comparison of the obesity phenotypes related to monosodium glutamate effect on arcuate nucleus and/or the high fat diet feeding in C57BL/6 and NMRI mice

In this study, susceptibility of inbred C57BL/6 and outbred NMRI mice to monosodium glutamate (MSG) obesity or diet-induced obesity (DIO) was compared in terms of food intake, body weight, adiposity as well as leptin, insulin and glucose levels. MSG obesity is an early-onset obesity resulting from MSG-induced lesions in arcuate nucleus to neonatal mice. Both male and female C57BL/6 and NMRI mice with MSG obesity did not differ in body weight from their lean controls, but had dramatically increased fat to body weight ratio. All MSG obese mice developed severe hyperleptinemia, more remarkable in females, but only NMRI male mice showed massive hyperinsulinemia and an extremely high HOMA index that pointed to development of insulin resistance. Diet-induced obesity is a late-onset obesity; it developed during 16-week-long feeding with high-fat diet containing 60 % calories as fat. Inbred C57BL/6 mice, which are frequently used in DIO studies, both male and female, had significantly increased fat to body weight ratio and leptin and glucose levels compared with their appropriate lean controls, but only female C57BL/6 mice had also significantly elevated body weight and insulin level. NMRI mice were less prone to DIO than C57BL/6 ones and did not show significant changes in metabolic parameters after feeding with high-fat diet.     

UCP1 deficiency increases susceptibility to diet-induced obesity with age

Loss of nonshivering thermogenesis in mice by inactivation of the mitochondrial uncoupling protein gene (Ucp1-/- mice) causes increased sensitivity to cold and unexpected resistance to diet-induced obesity at a young age. To clarify the role of UCP1 in body weight regulation throughout life and influence of UCP1 deficiency on longevity, we longitudinally analyzed the phenotypes of Ucp1-/- mice maintained in a room at 23 degrees C. There was no difference in body weight and lifespan between genotypes under the standard chow diet condition, whereas the mutant mice developed obesity with age under the high-fat (HF) diet condition. Compared with Ucp1+/+ mice, Ucp1-/- mice showed increased expression of genes related to thermogenesis and fatty acid metabolism, such as beta3-adrenergic receptor, in adipose tissues of the 3-month-old mutants; however, the augmented expression was reduced in Ucp1+/+ mice in 11-month-old Ucp1-/- mice fed the HF diet. Likewise, the increased levels of UCP3 and cAMP-dependent protein kinase in the brown adipose tissue of Ucp1-/- mice given the standard diet were decreased significantly in that of Ucp1-/- mice fed the HF diet, which animals showed impaired norepinephrine-induced lipolysis in their adipose tissues. These results suggest profound attenuation of beta-adrenergic responsiveness and fatty acid utilization in Ucp1-/- mice fed the HF diet, bringing them to late-onset obesity. Our findings provide evidence that UCP1 is neither essential for body weight regulation nor for longevity under conditions of standard diet and normal housing temperature, but deficiency increases susceptibility to obesity with age in combination with HF diet.