阿尔采末病与免疫炎症反应的相关性

阿尔采末病（Ａｌｚｈｅｉｍｅｒ’ｓｄｉｓｅａｓｅ,ＡＤ）可能是中枢神经系统内免疫活性细胞过程激活而导致的免疫炎症反应,其病灶周围存在大量激活的小胶质细胞和星形细胞,可产生大量补体,炎性细胞因子,急性期反应物等导致神经细胞损伤,破坏和死亡。同时体内寂体调节剂和抑制性细胞因子的水平明显长高,虽然不足以保护神经元免遭破坏,但却提示抑制或阻断中枢神经系统的免疫炎症反应的药物可能在ＡＤ的防治中具有重要作用。     

新生大鼠脑低氧缺血早期对纹状体胆碱能系统的影响

采用7日龄大鼠右侧颈总动脉结扎合并高温、低氧环境制作新生动物脑低氧缺血模型,观察了脑低氧缺血对新生动物纹状体胆碱能系统的影响。乙酰胆碱(ACh)放射免疫测定结果表明,低氧缺血损伤后24h,两侧纹状体ACh含量均比正常对照组明显下降。乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)组织化学图象定量提示,脑低氧缺血后24h,纹状体内拟胆碱能神经元数量未见减少,而胞体内AChE染色强度略有下降。胆碱能递质和该标志酶在新生鼠脑低氧缺血早期的一致改变,证明发育中纹状体胆碱能系统对低氧缺血敏感。鉴于动物不结扎动脉仅作低氧处理者双侧纹状体ACh含量出现与低氧缺血组相同的改变,故提示缺氧可能是造成胆碱能系统早期损伤的直接原因。     

大鼠肠道内NOS与AChE、VIP阳性神经元的分布关系研究

应用一氧化氮合酶 (NOS)、乙酰胆碱酯酶 (ACh E)组织化学及血管活性肠肽 (VIP)免疫组织化学方法 ,光镜下比较观察大鼠肠道内 NOS、ACh E、VIP阳性神经元的形态学特征。结果显示 ,肠肌间丛 NOS阳性神经元胞体大小不等 ,形态不一 ,NOS、ACh E和 VIP阳性神经元的分布密度为 ACh E>NOS>VIP,在不同的肠段和层次分布密度有差异 ,NOS与 ACh E存在共染。在肌间丛和粘膜下丛 ,少数 VIP与 NOS共染。在粘膜下丛 ,三种阳性神经元的分布密度为 ACh E>VIP>NOS。在肌间丛和粘膜下丛 ,可见 VIP阳性末梢环抱 NOS阳性神经元胞体 ,两者呈终扣样接触。上述结果提示 NOS阳性神经元与 ACh E、 VIP阳性神经元有密切的形态学联系。在消化道功能调节上 ,它们可能起协调作用。     

乙酰胆碱对自然杀伤细胞活性的影响

目的:观察乙酰胆碱(ACh)对自然杀伤(NK)细胞活性的影响,并初步探讨其作用的受体机制.方法:根据不同的实验目的,选择ACh、胆碱能受体激动剂和拮抗剂分别作用于NK细胞,以乳酸脱氢酶(lactate dehydrogenase,LDH)自然释放法检测不同实验条件下NK细胞杀伤肿瘤靶细胞(Yac)的活性.结果:ACh、M受体激动剂毛果芸香碱和N受体激动剂烟碱在10-10～10-6mol/L浓度范围内都能显著抑制NK细胞杀伤肿瘤细胞的活性.M受体拮抗剂阿托品(10-8和10-7mol/L)能完全阻断同浓度ACh抑制NK细胞活性的作用;但N受体拮抗剂筒箭毒碱(10-8和10-7mol/L)不能阻断同浓度ACh抑制NK细胞活性的作用.结论:ACh可抑制NK细胞对肿瘤细胞的杀伤作用,此作用主要由淋巴细胞上的M受体和N1受体介导.     

胆碱能抗炎通路在炎症反应中的作用

胆碱能抗炎通路是调节免疫系统的一种神经生理机制,其在脾脏、肝脏和胃肠道等网状内皮系统通过释放乙酰胆碱抑制细胞因子的合成,控制炎症反应。乙酰胆碱与巨噬细胞和其他分泌细胞因子细胞表面的α7烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体相互作用,抑制致炎细胞因子的合成与释放,防止组织损伤。本文着重综述胆碱能抗炎通路调节炎症反应的神经生理机制及其在炎症性疾病中的干预价值。     

淋巴细胞上的非神经性乙酰胆碱系统

尽管乙酰胆碱作为神经递质存在于哺乳动物神经系统中的事实已广为人知,但近年来在淋巴细胞等非神经性组织和细胞中也发现了乙酰胆碱。淋巴细胞具备一个独立的非神经性乙酰胆碱系统,包括:乙酰胆碱、胆碱酯酶、胆碱乙酰转移酶、毒蕈碱乙酰胆碱受体和烟碱能乙酰胆碱受体等组分。免疫系统与淋巴细胞胆碱能系统之间可以相互作用。免疫刺激后的淋巴细胞可增强胆碱能系统的表达;激活后的乙酰胆碱受体参与淋巴细胞的免疫调节。淋巴细胞上胆碱能系统的这些发现将为相关疾病的研究和寻找有效的防治药物提供新的研究思路。     

淋巴细胞上的非神经性乙酰胆碱系统

尽管乙酰胆碱作为神经递质存在于哺乳动物神经系统中的事实已广为人知,但近年来在淋巴细胞等非神经性组织和细胞中也发现了乙酰胆碱。淋巴细胞具备一个独立的非神经性乙酰胆碱系统,包括:乙酰胆碱、胆碱酯酶、胆碱乙酰转移酶、毒蕈碱乙酰胆碱受体和烟碱能乙酰胆碱受体等组分。免疫系统与淋巴细胞胆碱能系统之间可以相互作用。免疫刺激后的淋巴细胞可增强胆碱能系统的表达;激活后的乙酰胆碱受体参与淋巴细胞的免疫调节。淋巴细胞上胆碱能系统的这些发现将为相关疾病的研究和寻找有效的防治药物提供新的研究思路。     

乙酰胆碱参与大鼠尾核痛觉调制的机理研究

目的:观察乙酰胆碱(ACh)对大鼠尾核痛反应神经元电活动的影响,探讨尾核在痛觉调制过程中与胆碱能系统的关系,为痛觉调节的中枢机制和镇痛治疗提供新的依据。方法:应用玻璃微电极细胞外记录的电生理学方法记录大鼠尾核内神经元放电,观察尾核内分别注入Ach、毛果芸香碱、阿托品、生理盐水等药物后痛反应神经元的放电表现,即痛兴奋神经元(PENs)的频率净增值(NIV)、潜伏期和痛抑制神经元(PINs)的NIV、抑制时程(ID)的改变。结果:大鼠尾核内注射ACh可以减少刺激坐骨神经诱发的尾核内痛相关神经元PENs的NIV,延长潜伏期,增加PINs的NIV,减少ID。尾核内注射毛果芸香碱后,产生和ACh类似的作用,而注射M受体阻断剂阿托品后则表现相反的效应。结论:外源性ACh能够调节大鼠尾核痛反应神经元的电活动,具有减弱痛觉在大鼠尾核中的传递作用,表现出镇痛效应,且可能主要与毒蕈碱受体途径有关。     

病毒潜伏感染的免疫应答特点

在儿童的早期,单纯疱疹病毒1型能在感觉性神经元中形成潜伏性感染,然后成为复发性疾病的储存场所。在感觉神经元中消灭潜伏的单纯疱疹病毒1型目前尚不可能,但现代研究发现,宿主免疫在维持该病毒潜伏状态上起一定的作用。本文提出证据,证实CD8T细胞调节潜伏状态时单纯疱疹病毒1型基因的表达。     

乙酰胆碱抗体制成

ACh 一般储存于胆碱纯神经元的囊泡中,分子量小,缺乏抗原性,而且不稳定。要制得抗ACh 的抗体,首先必须建立起一套克服ACh 分子化学结构上的缺陷的免疫学方法。Geffard 等为了保持ACh 的结构同时赋予其抗原性,用化学方法给胆碱分子接上戊二酸酐(GA)及多肽(蛋白质),经此修饰后的胆碱-戊二酸酐-蛋白质与ACh 极相似,而且具有抗原性;继而免疫动物即可制得针对ACh 的抗体。他们又对组     

The non-neuronal cholinergic system in humans: expression,function and pathophysiology

Acetylcholine, a prime example of a neurotransmitter, has been detected in bacteria, algae, protozoa, and primitive plants, indicating an extremely early appearance in the evolutionary process (about 3 billion years). In humans, acetylcholine and/or the synthesizing enzyme, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), have been found in epithelial cells (airways, alimentary tract, urogenital tract, epidermis), mesothelial (pleura, pericardium), endothelial, muscle and immune cells (mononuclear cells, granulocytes, alveolar macrophages, mast cells). The widespread expression of non-neuronal acetylcholine is accompanied by the ubiquitous presence of cholinesterase and receptors (nicotinic, muscarinic). Thus, the non-neuronal cholinergic system and non-neuronal acetylcholine, acting as a local cellular signaling molecule, has to be discriminated from the neuronal cholinergic system and neuronal acetylcholine, acting as neurotransmitter. In the human placenta anti-ChAT immunoreactivity is found in multiple subcellular compartments like the cell membrane (microvilli, coated pits), endosomes, cytoskeleton, mitochondria and in the cell nucleus. These locations correspond with the results of experiments where possible functions of non-neuronal acetylcholine have been identified (proliferation, differentiation, organization of the cytoskeleton and the cell-cell contact, locomotion, migration, ciliary activity, immune functions). In the human placenta acetylcholine release is mediated by organic cation transporters. Thus, structural and functional differences are evident between the non-neuronal and neuronal cholinergic system. Enhanced levels of acetylcholine are detected in inflammatory diseases. In conclusion, it is time to revise the role of acetylcholine in humans. Its biological and pathobiological roles have to be elucidated in more detail and possibly, new therapeutical targets may become available.     

Dysfunction of the non-neuronal cholinergic system in the airways and blood cells of patients with cystic fibrosis

The non-neuronal cholinergic system is widely expressed in human airways, skin and immune cells. Choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), acetylcholine and nicotine/muscarine receptors are demonstrated in epithelial surface cells, submucosal glands, airway smooth muscle fibres and immune cells. Moreover, acetylcholine is involved in the regulation of cell functions like proliferation, differentiation, migration, organization of the cytoskeleton, cell-cell contact, secretion and transport of ions and water. Cystic fibrosis (CF), the most frequent genetic disorder, is known to be caused by a mutation of the CF-gene coding for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator protein (CFTR). CFTR represents a regulating transport protein for ion channels and processes involving endo- and exocytosis. Despite the identification of the genetic mutation knowledge of the underlying cellular pathways is limited. In the present experiments the cholinergic system was investigated in the peripheral blood and in the lung of CF patients undergoing lung transplantation (n=7). Acetylcholine content in bronchi and lung parenchyma of CF was reduced by 70% compared to controls (tumor-free tissue obtained from patients with lung tumor; n=13). In contrast, ChAT activity was elevated to some extent (p>0.05) in CF, and esterase activity did not differ from control. Acetylcholine content extracted from peripheral leucocytes (30 ml) was also reduced by 70% in CF (n=13) compared to healthy volunteers (n=9). Double labelling experiments with anti-CF antibodies and anti-ChAT antibodies showed a co-localization in peripheral lymphocytes, giving first evidence that CFTR may be linked with the intracellular storage/transport of non-neuronal acetylcholine. It is concluded that the non-neuronal cholinergic system is involved in the pathogenesis of CF. A reduced content of non-neuronal acetylcholine could contribute to the deleterious changes of epithelial ion and water movements in CF, because acetylcholine stimulates apical Cl(-) secretion, inhibits apical Na(+) and water absorption and therewith facilitates mucociliary clearance.     

Emerging evidence for a similar role of glutamate receptors in the nervous and immune systems

The role of glutamate receptors in synaptic transmission and excitotoxicity in the nervous system is well established. Recent evidence has emerged that glutamatergic mechanisms also exist in a wide variety of non-neuronal cells. In the case of thymocytes and lymphocytes, several types of glutamate receptor are expressed which can induce functional changes. This review focuses on the cellular function of NMDA-activated ionotropic and groups I and III metabotropic glutamate receptors in lymphocytes. Levels of exogenous and endogenous circulatory agonists and antagonists for lymphocyte glutamate receptors, notably homocysteine metabolites, are markedly increased in certain disease states and may be involved in disorders of the immune system. In addition to glutamate and aspartate, these compounds are active at glutamate receptors and increase the excitotoxic effects of glutamate in both neurons and lymphocytes. Increased levels of compounds acting at glutamate receptors may be risk factors for organ damage, for example in both heart and kidney disease. We conclude that glutamate is involved in signaling in immunocompetent cells and that the expression of both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors may have regulatory functions in immunocompetent cells, as well as in the nervous system. In addition, glutamate may serve as a signaling agent between the immune and nervous systems.     

The non-neuronal cholinergic system of human skin.

In human skin both resident and transiently residing cells are part of the extra- or non-neuronal cholinergic system, creating a highly complex and interconnected cosmos in which acetylcholine (ACh) and choline are the natural ligands of nicotinic and muscarinic receptors with regulatory function in both physiology and pathophysiology. ACh is produced in keratinocytes, endothelial cells and most notably in immune competent cells invading the skin at sites of inflammation. The cholinergic system is involved in basic functions of the skin through autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine mechanisms, like keratinocyte proliferation, differentiation, adhesion and migration, epidermal barrier formation, pigment-, sweat- and sebum production, blood circulation, angiogenesis, and a variety of immune reactions. The pathophysiological consequences of this complex cholinergic "concert" are only beginning to be understood. The present review aims at providing insight into basic mechanisms of this highly complex system.     

The lymphocytic cholinergic system and its biological function

Lymphocytes are now known to possess the essential components for a non-neuronal cholinergic system. These include acetylcholine (ACh); choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), its synthesizing enzyme; and both muscarinic and nicotinic ACh receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs, respectively). Stimulating lymphocytes with phytohemagglutinin, a T-cell activator; Staphylococcus aureus Cowan I, a B-cell activator; or cell surface molecules enhances the synthesis and release of ACh and up-regulates expression of ChAT and M(5) mAChR mRNAs. Activation of mAChRs and nAChRs on lymphocytes elicits increases in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and stimulates c-fos gene expression and nitric oxide synthesis. On the other hand, long-term exposure to nicotine down-regulates expression of nAChR mRNA. Abnormalities in the lymphocytic cholinergic system have been detected in spontaneously hypertensive rats and MRL-lpr mice, two animal models of immune disorders. Taken together, these data present a compelling picture in which immune function is, at least in part, under the control of an independent non-neuronal lymphocytic cholinergic system.     

Immune responses in mice to arecoline mediated by lymphocyte muscarinic acetylcholine receptor

There is evidence that lymphocytes possess all the components of the cholinergic system independent of neuronal innervations. Thus, potential therapeutic applications of drugs targeting the neuronal cholinergic system might have side effects on the immune system. This study investigated whether arecoline could affect immunological functions in mice and explored the mechanism of the effect of arecoline on the immune system. To investigate this, arecoline at the dose of 2mg/kg was administered subcutaneously in BALB/c mice for 4 weeks to evaluate changes in immunological function both in vivo and in vitro. Several indices were used to assess immunological activation, including the spleen index, serum hemolysin levels, interleukin (IL)-2 and splenocyte proliferation. Our results showed a significant reduction in treated animals with respect to the control group in the following tests: the spleen index (86%), hemolysin against sheep red blood cells (68%), IL-2 production (73%), and splenocyte proliferation induced by concanavalin A or lipopolysaccharide (76% and 74%, respectively). The muscarinic receptor antagonist atropine (1mg/kg) reversed the inhibition of the four immune-related parameters mentioned above. Chronic atropine alone did not significantly affect the immune response. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate that arecoline interferes with the immune system by targeting the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors of the non-neuronal cholinergic system.     

A Non-Neuronal Cardiac Cholinergic System Plays a Protective Role in Myocardium Salvage during Ischemic Insults

Background

In our previous study, we established the novel concept of a non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system–cardiomyocytes produce ACh in an autocrine and/or paracrine manner. Subsequently, we determined the biological significance of this system–it played a critical role in modulating mitochondrial oxygen consumption. However, its detailed mechanisms and clinical implications have not been fully investigated.

Aim

We investigated if this non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system was upregulated by a modality other than drugs and if the activation of the system contributes to favorable outcomes.

Results

Choline acetyltransferase knockout (ChAT KO) cells with the lowest cellular ACh levels consumed more oxygen and had increased MTT activity and lower cellular ATP levels compared with the control cells. Cardiac ChAT KO cells with diminished connexin 43 expression formed poor cell–cell communication, evidenced by the blunted dye transfer. Similarly, the ChAT inhibitor hemicholinium-3 decreased ATP levels and increased MTT activity in cardiomyocytes. In the presence of a hypoxia mimetic, ChAT KO viability was reduced. Norepinephrine dose-dependently caused cardiac ChAT KO cell death associated with increased ROS production. In in vivo studies, protein expression of ChAT and the choline transporter CHT1 in the hindlimb were enhanced after ischemia-reperfusion compared with the contralateral non-treated limb. This local effect also remotely influenced the heart to upregulate ChAT and CHT1 expression as well as ACh and ATP levels in the heart compared with the baseline levels, and more intact cardiomyocytes were spared by this remote effect as evidenced by reduced infarction size. In contrast, the upregulated parameters were abrogated by hemicholinium-3.

Conclusion

The non-neuronal cholinergic system plays a protective role in both myocardial cells and the entire heart by conserving ATP levels and inhibiting oxygen consumption. Activation of this non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system by a physiotherapeutic modality may underlie cardioprotection through the remote effect of hindlimb ischemia-reperfusion.     

Acetylcholine-induced proliferation of fibroblasts and myofibroblasts in vitro is inhibited by tiotropium bromide

Acetylcholine (ACh) has been suggested to exert various pathophysiological activities in the airways in addition to vagally-induced bronchoconstriction. This archetypal neurotransmitter and other components of the cholinergic system are expressed in a number of non-neuronal cells in the airways. Non-neuronal ACh released from these cells may affect fibroblasts (Fb) as well as inflammatory cells in lung tissue. Tiotropium bromide is a once-a-day antimuscarinic drug, marketed under the brand name Spiriva, for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Besides its proven direct bronchodilatory activity, recent evidence suggests that tiotropium may be able to reduce the frequency of exacerbations and attenuate the decline in lung function, thus improving the course of obstructive airway diseases. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of tiotropium on the ACh-induced proliferation of primary human Fb isolated from biopsies of lung fibrosis patients and myofibroblasts (MyFb) derived from these cells. A human lung Fb cell line acted as control. Expression of muscarinic receptor subtypes M1, M2 and M3 was demonstrated by RT-PCR in both cell types. Acetylcholine stimulated proliferation in all cells investigated. Tiotropium concentration-dependently inhibited the ACh-induced proliferation in both the Fb and MyFb with a maximum effect at 30 nM. These results suggest that cholinergic stimuli mediated by muscarinic receptors could contribute to remodeling processes in chronic airway disease. Tiotropium bromide may have a beneficial influence on airway remodeling processes in chronic airway diseases through antiproliferative effects on fibroblasts and myofibroblasts.     

Down-regulation of the non-neuronal acetylcholine synthesis and release machinery in acute allergic airway inflammation of rat and mouse

Acetylcholine (ACh), derived both from nerve fibres and from non-neuronal sources such as epithelial cells, is a major regulator of airway function. There is evidence that dysfunction of the neuronal cholinergic system is involved in the pathogenesis of asthma. Here, we asked whether the pulmonary non-neuronal ACh-synthesis and release machinery is altered in a rat and a mouse model of allergic airway disease. Animals were sensitized against ovalbumin, challenged by allergen inhalation, and sacrificed 24 or 48 h later. Targets of investigation were the high-affinity choline transporter-1 (CHT1), that mediates cellular uptake of choline, the ACh-synthesizing enzyme choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the vesicular ACh transporter (VAChT), and the polyspecific organic cation transporters (OCT1-3), which are able to translocate choline and ACh across the plasma membrane. With cell-type specific distribution patterns, immunohistochemistry identified these proteins in airway epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages. Real-time RT-PCR revealed significant decreases in ChAT-, CHT1-, VAChT-, OCT-mRNA in the lung of sensitized and allergen challenged animals. These data were supported by immunohistochemistry, demonstrating reduced labeling intensity of airway epithelial cells. ChAT-, CHT1-, VAChT-, and OCT1-mRNA were also significantly reduced in cells recovered by bronchoalveolar lavage from sensitized and challenged rats. In conclusion, the pulmonary non-neuronal cholinergic system is down-regulated in acute allergic airway inflammation. In view of the role of ACh in maintenance of cell-cell-contacts, stimulation of fluid-secretion and of ciliary beat frequency, this down-regulation may contribute to epithelial shedding and ciliated cell dysfunction that occur in this pathological condition.