AMPK在胰岛素信号转导通路中的作用

单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶(AMP-activated potein kinase,AMPK)作为一种细胞能量调节器,当细胞经历代谢应激反应时,伴随着细胞内AMP水平或AMP与ATP的比例升高,AMPK被AMP激活,其活化的结果导致脂肪酸氧化的增加以产生更多ATP;同时,抑制ATP消耗,综合效应是帮助细胞度过急性损伤,暂时保障细胞的存活。因为一些治疗2型糖尿病的药物通过激活AMPK而发挥作用,故AMPK被认为是各种潜在的和有效的抗糖尿病药物的靶效应器。5-氨基-4-氨甲酰咪唑核苷(5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside,AICAR),进入细胞后被磷酸化变成ZMP,后者类似AMP也能够激活AMPK。因此,我们采用AICAR激活AMPK,观察活化的AMPK对脂肪细胞能量代谢及胰岛素信号途径的作用。结果显示,脂肪细胞中的AMPK被激活后,丙酰辅酶A(malonyl-CoA,一种脂肪酸氧化作用的抑制剂及脂肪酸合成的前体中间产物)浓度下降80%;在已分化的3T3-F442a脂肪细胞中,AICAR通过激活AMPK,增强胰岛素对Akt/PKB的激活和GSK3的磷酸化。相反,在AICAR预...     

血小板收缩蛋白功能的调节——肌球蛋白轻链磷酸化学说

血小板收缩蛋白功能调节是通过Ca~(2+)依赖的钙调素(calmodulin,CM)激活肌球蛋白轻链激酶而使肌球蛋白20000道尔顿轻链磷酸化实现的。细胞内Ca~(2+)浓度的高低决定了Ca~(2+)-CM复合物是否形成,因此,Ca~(2+)在调节中起着关键作用。cAMP阻抑CM与肌球蛋白激酶结合,从而抑制肌球蛋白轻链磷酸化,对收缩蛋白活动起抑制作用。     

若干蝙蝠葛碱衍生物对人红细胞膜Ca~(2+)-Mg~(2+)-ATPase活力的影响

本文测定了数种蝙蝠葛碱衍生物对钙调素(CaM)激活的人红细胞膜Ca~(2+)-Mg~(2+)-ATPase活力的影响。结果表明,这些化合物对该酶都有不同程度的抑制作用,其机制表现为竞争性抑制,过量的CaM能完全逆转这些化合物所引起的抑制。当Ca~(2+)-Mg~(2+)-ATPase被胰蛋白酶(trypsin)限制性酶解完全活化后,其活力不再受CaM激活,但仍被这些化合物所抑制。     

砷诱导蚕豆气孔保卫细胞死亡的毒性效应

采用蚕豆(Vicia faba L.)叶面气孔保卫细胞,研究砷对细胞的毒性效应。结果表明,0.3—10 mg/L的NaAsO_2能降低保卫细胞活性,使部分细胞死亡,死亡率随砷浓度升高而增高。死细胞中呈现核固缩、核崩解等典型程序性死亡特征,且泛caspase抑制剂Z-Asp-CH_2-DCB能阻止NaAsO_2诱发的细胞死亡。过氧化氢清除剂过氧化氢酶与NaAsO_2共同作用时,细胞死亡率显著低于砷单独处理组,保卫细胞内Ca~(2+)水平降低,具程序性死亡特征的细胞数减少;Ca~(2+)特异性螯合剂EGTA亦能降低NaAsO_2诱发的细胞死亡。研究结果表明,NaAsO_2能诱发蚕豆保卫细胞程序性死亡,该过程由胁迫引发的ROS升高引起,ROS可能通过激活质膜Ca~(2+)通道,使胞外Ca~(2+)内流,造成胞内Ca~(2+)浓度升高,进而诱导细胞程序性死亡。     

钙(Ca2+)在植物抗寒中的作用

Ca~(2+)作为植物细胞的第二信使对不同抗寒性植物起着不同的作用。冷敏感植物在冷胁迫下引起的Ca~(2+)流入不撤退,结果细胞内高浓度Ca~(2+)导致冷敏感植物的Ca~(2+)毒害。抗寒植物在冷胁迫中引起的细胞内Ca~(2+)水平的升高是短暂性的,它们在完成信使作用后即撤退。这种短暂性的高浓度Ca~(2+)可能通过激活某些有关的蛋白激酶,使某些相应的蛋白质磷酸化,从而诱发抗冻基因表达,使植物进入抗寒锻炼,发展各种抗寒特性。Ca~(2+)对抗寒特性的形成,除通过诱发抗冻基因表达发展抗寒特性外,Ca~(2+)也可能对某些抗寒特性的形成直接起作用,如Ca~(2+)对膜结构的稳定作用,刺激木质素和非纤维素多糖的合成及其在细胞壁内的沉积,以及直接调节胞间连丝孔道的开放与关闭等。     

多形核白细胞上嘌呤受体的初步研究

ATP和ADP能激活多型核白细胞引起细胞内［Ca²⁺］_i的明显升高,AMP则无此作用.多型核白细胞对ATP和ADP具有不同的浓度依赖性.当细胞外的钙离子被螯合后,ATP和ADP仍能引起细胞内游离钙浓度的升高.结果表明多形核白细胞存在着对ATP和ADP敏感的P2型嘌呤受体,并且属于P2型受体中的P2Y亚类.     

Ca~(2+)通过膜脂影响肌质网Ca~(2+)-ATP酶的活性与Ca~(2+)转运功能

重建在大豆磷脂脂质体上的兔骨骼肌肌质网Ca~(2+)—ATP酶在ATP驱动下可将溶液中的Ca~(2+)转运到脂酶体内部;外加EGTA则可除去脂酶体外部的Ca~(2+),由此可得到四种含Ca~(2+)状态不同的脂酶体:(1)内、外都无Ca~(2+);(2)仅外部有Ca~(2+);(3)内、外都有Ca~(2+);(4),仅内部有Ca~(2+).用DPH和AS系列萤光探针对这四种含Ca~+状态不同的脂酶体的膜脂流动性进行了测定,结果表明:脂酶体外部加入Ca~(2+),脂双层外表面的流动性降低.当Ca~(2+)进入脂酶体内部后,内表面膜脂的流动性也降低,而且外层膜脂流动性进一步降低.脂酶体内、外的Ca~(2+)含量不同时,Ca~(2+)—ATP酶功能状态也不同.转运到脂酶体内部的ca~(2+)积累到一定浓度后,通过Ca~(2+)泵向内转运的Ca~(2+)及Ca~(2+)—ATP酶活力都受到了抑制.转运进行到第四分钟时的酶活只有第一分钟的9%.但在相同的实验条件下,失去了完整的膜结构的纯化的Ca~(2+)—ATP酶蛋白没有被抑制.这提示完整的膜结构是这种抑制作用所必需的,而且膜两侧Ca~(2+)浓度的梯差可通过影响膜脂来调节Ca~(2+)—ATP酶的功能.     

平滑肌肌球蛋白B的超沉淀与肌球蛋白轻链磷酸化

本文报导了牛胃肌球蛋白B(天然肌动球蛋白)的超沉淀性质。当钙离子、钙调蛋白和ATP存在时,肌球蛋白B出现超沉淀,在pH6.8和7.5处,有两个峰值。Ca~(2+)(PCa值8-4)对超沉淀影响的浓度-反应曲线呈典型的S形,表明当Ca~(2+)浓度处于微摩尔水平时产生超沉淀。伴随超沉淀发生了肌球蛋白调节轻链磷酸化。这说明肌球蛋白轻链的Ca~(2+)-CaM依赖性磷酸化可能包含在脊椎动物平滑肌收缩活动的调节机制中。     

大麦根细胞质膜Ca~(2+)-ATP酶和Ca~(2+)转运系统的特性

用大麦质膜微囊研究细胞质膜 Ca~(2+)转运过程,发现质膜 Ca~(2+)—ATP酶在反应系统中不存在Mg~(2+)时可正常表现活性。跨膜Ca~(2+)转运按其对Mg~(2+)的需求可分为两个过程,一个是不需Mg~(2+)的、具高Ca~(2+)亲和力和较低的转运能力;另一个则是需Mg~(2+)的、具低Ca~(2+)亲和力和较高的转运能力。前者的动力学特征与Ca~(2+)—ATP酶相近,而后者则相差很大。据此推测,大麦根细胞质膜上除Ca~(2+)—ATP酶外,还存在另一个不同的Ca~(2+)转运系统。由两者分别承担的Ca~(2+)转运过程在细胞钙信使系统中可能起着不同的作用。     

大麦根细胞质膜Ca~(2+)转运系统对盐胁迫的反应

大麦幼苗经短时间盐处理,尚未发生伤害时,虽然质膜上需Mg~(2+)和不需Mg~(2+)的两个Ca~(2+)转运系统的转运能力均基本未变,但两者的动力学特征却有所不同。在盐处理3h内,不需Mg~(2+)的Ca~(2+)转运过程对Ca~(2+)的亲和力便明显降低,而需Mg~(2+)的Ca~(2+)转运过程对Ca~(2+)的亲和力变化不大。较长时间盐处理,两个Ca~(2+)转运系统的转运能力和ATP亲和力均有不同程度的减小。这种减小与幼苗的伤害相伴出现,随处理时间加长而加剧。不同时间的盐处理下,质膜Ca~(2+)—ATP酶活性与不需Mg~(2+)的Ca~(2+)转运过程变化规律一致。Ca~(2+)—ATP酶受钙调素激活的特性在盐处理3h内即有所减小,至处理24h基本丧失。由动力学分析结果推测,短时间盐胁迫下质膜上两个Ca~(2+)转运系统的不同变化是植物的一种调节反应,它们在钙信使系统传递胁迫信号的过程中起不同作用。Ca~(2+)—ATP酶驱动的初级Ca~(2+)转运系统可能与胁迫信号的传递有关,而次级Ca~(2+)转运系统即可能起着信息传递之后将剩余 Ca~(2+)运出胞外的功能。较长时间盐胁迫下两系统Ca~(2+)转运能力的降低则是一种伤害反应。     

Ghrelin raises [Ca2+]i via AMPK in hypothalamic arcuate nucleus NPY neurons

Ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone, directly activates neuropeptide (NPY) neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC), and thereby stimulates food intake. The hypothalamic level of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an intracellular energy sensor, is activated by peripheral and central administration of ghrelin. We examined whether ghrelin regulates AMPK activity in NPY neurons of the ARC. Single neurons were isolated from the ARC and cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) was measured by fura-2 microfluorometry, followed by immunocytochemical identification of NPY, phospho-AMPK, and phospho-acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). Ghrelin and AICAR, an AMPK activator, increased [Ca²⁺]_i in neurons isolated from the ARC. The ghrelin-responsive neurons highly overlapped with AICAR-responsive neurons. The neurons that responded to both ghrelin and AICAR were primarily NPY-immunoreactive neurons. Treatment with ghrelin increased phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC. An AMPK inhibitor, compound C, suppressed ghrelin-induced [Ca²⁺]_i increases. These results demonstrate that ghrelin increases [Ca²⁺]_i via AMPK-mediated signaling in the ARC NPY neurons.     

Fluctuations in the Concentration of Extracellular ATP Synchronized with Intracellular Ca2+ Oscillatory Rhythm in Cultured Cardiac Myocytes

Isolated and cultured neonatal cardiac myocytes contract spontaneously and cyclically. The intracellular concentration of free Ca²⁺ also changes rhythmically in association with the rhythmic contraction of myocytes (Ca²⁺ oscillation). Both the contraction and Ca²⁺ oscillatory rhythms are synchronized among myocytes, and intercellular communication via gap junctions has been considered primarily responsible for the synchronization. However, a recent study has demonstrated that intercellular communication via extracellular ATP‐purinoceptor signaling is also involved in the intercellular synchronization of intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillation. In this study, we aim to elucidate whether the concentration of extracellular ATP changes cyclically and contributes to the intercellular synchronization of Ca²⁺ oscillation among myocytes. In almost all the cultured cardiac myocytes at four days in vitro (4 DIV), intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillations were synchronized with each other. The simultaneous measurement of the concentration of extracellular ATP and intracellular Ca²⁺ revealed the extracellular concentration of ATP actually oscillated concurrently with the intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillation. In addition, power spectrum and cross‐correlation analyses suggested that the treatment of cultured cardiac myocytes with suramin, a blocker of P2 purinoceptors, resulted in the asynchronization of Ca²⁺ oscillatory rhythms among cardiac myocytes. Treatment with suramin also resulted in a significant decrease in the amplitudes of the cyclic changes in both intracellular Ca²⁺ and extracellular ATP. Taken together, the present study demonstrated the possibility that the concentration of extracellular ATP changes cyclically in association with intracellular Ca²⁺, contributing to the intercellular synchronization of Ca²⁺ oscillation among cultured cardiac myocytes.     

CaMKKβ Is Involved in AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Activation by Baicalin in LKB1 Deficient Cell Lines

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays an important role in mediating energy metabolism and is controlled mainly by two upstream kinases, LKB1 or Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-β (CaMKKβ). Previously, we found that baicalin, one of the major flavonoids in a traditional Chinese herb medicine, Scutellaria baicalensis, protects against the development of hepatic steatosis in rats feeding with a high-fat diet by the activation of AMPK, but, the underlying mechanism for AMPK activation is unknown. Here we show that in two LKB1-deficient cells, HeLa and A549 cells, baicalin activates AMPK by α Thr-172 phosphorylation and subsequent phosphorylation of its downstream target, acetyl CoA carboxylase, at Ser-79, to a similar degree as does in HepG2 cells (that express LKB1). Pharmacologic inhibition of CaMKKβ by its selective inhibitor STO-609 markedly inhibits baicalin-induced AMPK activation in both HeLa and HepG2 cells, indicating that CaMKKβ is the responsible AMPK kinase. We also show that treatment of baicalin causes a larger increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i), although the maximal level of [Ca²⁺]_i is lower in HepG2 cells compared to HeLa cells. Chelation of intracellular free Ca²⁺ by EDTA and EGTA, or depletion of intracellular Ca²⁺ stores by the endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin abrogates baicalin-induced activation of AMPK in HeLa cells. Neither cellular ATP nor the production of reactive oxygen species is altered by baicalin. Finally, in HeLa cells, baicalin treatment no longer decreases intracellular lipid accumulation caused by oleic acid after inhibition of CaMKKβ by STO-609. These results demonstrate that a potential Ca²⁺/CaMKKβ dependent pathway is involved in the activation of AMPK by baicalin and suggest that CaMKKβ likely acts as an upstream kinase of AMPK in response to baicalin.     

The adenosine derivative 2',3',5'-tri-O-acetyl-N6-(3-hydroxylaniline) adenosine activates AMPK and regulates lipid metabolism in vitro and in vivo

AimsOur overall objective was to investigate the effect of the adenosine derivative 2′,3′,5′-tri-O-acetyl-N6-(3-hydroxylaniline) adenosine (WS010117) on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation and lipid metabolism and to also assess the underlying mechanisms involved in these processes.Main methodsHepG2 cells and hamsters fed a high-fat diet were used to test the effects of WS010117 on lipid metabolism. Western blots, chemical intervention, HPLC, SAMS peptide assay, ¹⁴C-labelled acetate and palmitate assays, molecular docking assay and siRNA targeting the AMPK γ1 subunit were used to investigate the effect of WS010117 on AMPK activation as well as the underlying mechanism involved in this activation.Key findingsWS010117 treatment resulted in the dose-dependent activation of AMPK in HepG2 cells, increasing lipid oxidation and decreasing lipid biosynthesis. In hamsters that were fed a high-fat diet, WS010117 treatment (1.5–6 mg/kg) significantly inhibited the increase in lipid accumulation. WS010117-induced AMPK activation was essentially abolished by treatment with compound C, and the addition of WS010117 did not alter the intracellular AMP:ATP ratio. In HeLa cells endogenously lacking LKB1, WS010117-mediated AMPK activation was not impaired, even following co-treatment with STO-609, a selective inhibitor of Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase (CaMKK). The results from the molecular docking assays and experiments targeting the AMPK γ1 subunit with siRNA indicated that WS010117 may activate AMPK by binding to and regulating the γ subunit of AMPK.SignificanceOur data indicate that WS010117 can regulate lipid metabolism through the activation of AMPK. WS010117 may activate AMPK by binding to and regulating the AMPK γ subunit.     

The thermodynamic efficiency of the Ca2+-Mg2+-ATPase is one hundred percent

The thermodynamic efficiency of the Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-ATPase of skeletal sarcoplasmic reticulum has been evaluated by comparing the Ca²⁺ gradient established with the ATP/(ADP*P_i) ratio. The evaluation was made at an external Ca²⁺ level (4.7 × 10^–8 M) which is below theK _m value of 7 × 10^–8 M. The Mg-ATP and phosphate concentrations were held constant (0.1 mM) and the ADP concentration was varied. Maximal uptake to an internal free Ca²⁺ concentration of 17 mM was observed at infinite ATP/(ADP*P_i) ratio (absence of ADP). This corresponds to a [Ca²⁺]_i/[Ca²⁺]₀ gradient of 3.6 × 10⁵. A Ca²⁺ gradient one-half as large was observed at an ATP/(ADP*P_i) ratio of 3.5 × 10³ M^–1. The square of the Ca²⁺ gradient is shown to be proportional to the ATP/(ADP*P_i) ratio, for finite values of the latter. The proportionality constant is identical to the equilibrium constant for hydrolysis of ATP (9.02 × 10⁶ M) under these conditions (0.1 mM Mg²⁺, 30°C). The intrinsic thermodynamic efficiency of the pump is shown to be 100%, with a maximal uncertainty of 3%. The efficiency is lower under less optimal conditions, when the pump is inhibited and passive leak processes compete.Dedicated to Prof. Philip George, University of Pennsylvania, whose instruction, research, and example made this contribution possible.     

Whole-cell voltage clamp and intracellular perfusion technique on single smooth muscle cells

Using freshly isolated single smooth muscle cells prepared by collegenase treatment, membrane currents were recorded by whole-cell voltage clamp. Intracellular constituents were modified by using an intracellular perfusion technique, i.e., pipette solutions were continuously exchanged from control to test solutions during current recording. In smooth muscle cells, intracellular application of ATP, but not cyclic AMP, enchanced the amplitude of Ca²⁺ currents and prevented current run-down. In addition, with this stabilization of Ca²⁺ current recording by ATP, introduction of various chemicals into the cell using the intracellular perfusion technique is useful for investigations of regulation of ion channels in smooth muscle cells.     

Effect of ATP/ADP/phosphate potential on the maximal steady-state uptake of Ca2+ by skeletal sarcoplasmic reticulum

The ability of the Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺ ATPase pump of skeletal SR to produce and maintain a Ca²⁺ gradient was studied as a function of the ATP/ADP/P_i ratio. The internal free Ca²⁺ concentration [Ca²⁺]_i was monitored by changes in fluorescence of CTC. Increasing ADP concentrations in the medium reduce the maximal [Ca²⁺]_i concentration achieved. The inclusion or the omission of 4×10^–4 M P_i or doubling the absolute ATP and ADP concentrations at a constant ATP/ADP ratio does not affect the level obtained. The level depends primarily on the ATP/ADP ratio. The [Ca²⁺] concentration shows a 1.5 power dependence on the ATP/ADP ratio. Further, [Ca²⁺]_i achieved at steady state does not depend on whether the pump had been working in the forward or the reverse direction prior to testing. Analysis shows that the levels of Ca²⁺ achieved are much lower than the levels predicted thermodynamically under the assumption of ideal coupling between Ca²⁺ transport and ATP hydrolysis with a stoichiometry of 2:1. Under this condition the osmotic energy of the [Ca²⁺]_i/[Ca²⁺]_o ratio was shown to be 48% as large as the free energy of hydrolysis of ATP, giving an overall thermodynamic efficiency of 48%. Analysis shows that maximal steady-state uptake is determined by the balance between the rates of uptake by the pump and rates of leak processes (intrinsic or extrinsic to the pump). Comparison with other studies shows that the [Ca²⁺]_i achieved results in trans-inhibition of the pump by tying up the Ca²⁺ translocator in the inwardly oriented phosphorylated form. The absence of an effect of P_i can be taken as evidence that the dissociation of Ca²⁺ from the inwardly oriented translocator on the phosphoylated enzyme must precede the dephosphorylation of the enzyme.