非病毒性载体在肝脏疾病基因治疗中的研究进展

基因治疗肝脏疾病的新策略已引起高度关注,在肝病的基因治疗中,最关键的是如何将治疗基因特异性地导入肝细胞中并适当表达.在过去的二十多年里,受体介导的基因给药系统广泛用于肝靶向基因递送,但一些非病毒载体的基因传递效率不高.本文综述了目前最常用的非病毒载体,包括其理化性质、优点和局限性,基因递送作用机理以及修饰后在肝靶向基因治疗中的应用,并综述了在肝细胞基因传递中常用的电穿孔技术和流体力学注射法等物理方法以及如何实现其最优化的转染率.     

新型核心蛋白聚糖靶向性重组腺相关病毒的制备与鉴定

核心蛋白聚糖(decorin, DCN)是广泛存在于细胞基质中的一种富含亮氨酸的蛋白多糖, 属于蛋白聚糖家族中的小分子类. DCN可作为多种细胞因子的配体, 发挥多种生物学功能. DCN在一些肿瘤组织中高水平表达,调控恶性肿瘤的生长和迁移. 腺相关病毒(AAV)是肿瘤基因治疗中常用的基因工程载体, 利用重组技术可以实现对病毒衣壳蛋白的改造, 使其感染具有靶向性. 而针对DCN高表达细胞的转导可能成为肿瘤基因治疗应用中定向导入治疗基因的有效策略. 本研究在对多种DCN结合蛋白序列保守区的分析基础上, 筛选出具有较高活性的DCN结合功能域(DB1), 并将其融合至AAV衣壳蛋白VP2编码序列的N端; 继而利用AAV的嵌合包装技术, 成功制备了衣壳展示DB1表位的重组AAV. 在过表达DCN细胞的感染实验中, 该病毒表现出针对DCN较强的靶向性. 本研究所制备的DCN靶向性腺相关病毒不仅为肿瘤治疗的应用提供了一种新型载体, 同时可作为一类特殊的基因导入工具为研究DCN在肿瘤发生发展中的作用提供帮助.     

基因定位修复技术——嵌合修复术（chimeraplasty）

传统的以病毒DNA为载体的基因治疗方法存在病毒导入的靶向性差、整合位点的特异性差、基因剂量的可控性差以及病毒载体具有一定的免疫原性的缺点,而实际上许多单基因遗传病只要将突变的单个碱基校正就能达到基因治疗的目的,不必置换或整合入整个基因.嵌合修复术(chimerplasty)是近年来迅速发展起来的一种基因定位修复技术,该技术利用RNA/DNA嵌合体分子与要修复的宿主染色体DNA碱基序列互补而精确定位并原位修复,也可用于人工定点突变,已在单基因遗传病的基因治疗及植物遗传改良等方面获得了成功的应用.介绍了该技术的原理、应用举例及前景.     

AAV在基因治疗中的靶向修饰研究进展

安全、有效、具有靶向性的病毒载体是基因治疗药物在临床上得以应用的关键。AAV是微小病毒科的一种,它能以其低的免疫原性及广泛的宿主性对人及灵长类进行感染,并且经过改造后的AAV病毒能更有效的靶向性特定组织及肿瘤细胞。重点对AAV病毒载体的衣壳蛋白基因工程修饰、转录调控修饰和转录后microRNA干扰表达修饰及衣壳蛋白化学修饰靶向机理,以及改造方法进行介绍。修饰后的AAV能改善其感染引起的性免疫反应、转染效率和肿瘤靶向性。     

microRNA调控的靶向性病毒载体在基因治疗中的应用

安全、有效、具有靶向性的病毒载体是基因治疗药物在临床上得以应用的关键。microRNA是一类单链、内源性的转录后调控小分子,它的发现为开发具有靶向性调控能力的病毒载体提供了新的研究方法。以下在介绍microRNA调节病毒载体靶向性原理的基础上,着重介绍microRNA在清除复制能力病毒的污染、消除转基因特异性免疫、增强肿瘤靶向性基因治疗、开发活体疫苗等领域的应用。     

基因治疗的输送屏障及输送载体的研究

基因治疗是将可具有治疗性的基因导入病变细胞以达到治疗遗传性疾病或获得性功能缺损疾病的治疗手段,是一种极具潜力的新型治疗方法。然而基因治疗面临着一系列一陆床应用障碍,其中缺乏理想的基因输送载体是首要问题。绝大多数基因治疗方案受困缺乏安全有效的基因输送手段,载体要达到目的地发挥作用,需要克服一系列复杂的体内生物屏障,包括细胞外屏障和细胞内屏障。目前基因输送载体主要分为病毒载体和非病毒载体,其中病毒载体天然进化至可进入宿主细胞,具有输送效率高,靶向性好的特点,但存在长期安全性的缺点。非病毒载体主要包括阳离子脂质体和阳离子聚合物,由于易于制备和无免疫原性、安全性好,被认为是更有潜力的输送载体,是目前研究的重点。本文结合基因治疗输送屏障的理论基础及临床研究,对基因输送载体系统的现状进行了综述。     

腺病毒载体在肿瘤靶向性基因治疗中的应用

近年来,腺病毒载体广泛应用于恶性肿瘤的靶向性基因治疗。对传统腺病毒载体的改造主要有以下策略：(1)通过改变腺病毒的嗜性(tropism),使之具有感染宿主细胞的靶向性;(2)在转录水平控制外源性基因的表达;(3)可选择性裂解肿瘤细胞的有复制能力的腺病毒(replication-competent adenovirus,RCA)。更多安全、高效的靶向性腺病毒载体将应用于肿瘤基因治疗中。     

多核酶表达系统在HEK293细胞中对多药耐药相关蛋白（MRP1）的表达抑制作用

为了研究多核酶表达系统在HEK293细胞中对多药耐药相关蛋白表达抑制的作用．我们构建了含有20个可以自身切割的顺式作用核酶和10个靶向MRP1基因特定位点的反式作用核酶的多核酶表达系统。利用RT—PCR、Westem blot和MTT分析了多核酶系统分别与MRP1靶基因质粒和MRP1 全长基因质粒共转染的HEK293细胞。结果显示．多核酶表达系统能够明显降低荧光融合蛋白在HEK293细胞中的表达。RT—PCR分析表明．懈用靶mRNA降低程度与多核酶表达系统所含的反式作用核酶数目有关。Westernblot分析显示了与RT—PCR相似的结果。Mrrr分析表明,多核酶表达系统能够逆转由MRP1基因转染HEK293细胞产生的多药耐药性。结果提示．含有多个核酶的表达系统对MRP1基因的抑制效应优于单核酶的表达系统。因此．该策略可能用于基因治疗肿瘤或其他疾病．     

可诱导慢病毒载体的优化策略及应用

以1型人免疫缺陷病毒(HIV-1)为基础构建的慢病毒载体具有可感染非分裂细胞、免疫反应小、携带的基因片段容量大和可整合进宿主基因组而长期表达等优点,因而成为最理想的基因转移载体之一。可诱导慢病毒载体介导的可诱导基因表达系统能够有效控制目的基因表达,扩大了慢病毒载体的临床应用潜能,成为很有前景的基因治疗载体。主要介绍带有四环素和其他几种诱导系统的可调控性慢病毒载体及其改进,以及可诱导慢病毒载体在RNA干扰中的应用。     

靶向整合研究进展

基因治疗的目的是将遗传物质导入细胞并使之得到适宜水平的表达,以纠正机体的遗传缺陷,恢复细胞的正常功能或杀死癌细胞及致病微生物。目前广泛应用的病毒及非病毒载体不能很好地满足临床要求,是基因治疗亟需解决的关键技术。同源重组介导的基因靶向性整合,是遗传性疾病基因治疗的较佳方案。近年来有关同源重组研究的进展,使得其应用于基因治疗成为可能。     

Targeted vectors for gene therapy of cancer and retroviral infections

Gene therapy has developed to a technology which rapidly moved from the laboratory bench to the bedside in the clinic. This implies safe, efficient and targeted gene transfer systems for suitable application to the patient. Beside the development of such gene transfer vectors of viral or nonviral origin, improvement of cell type specific and inducible gene expression is pivotal for successful gene therapy leading to targeted gene action. Numerous gene therapy approaches for treatment of cancer and retroviral infections utilize cell type specific and/or regulatable promoter and enhancer sequences for the selective expression of therapeutic genes in the desired cell populations and tissues. In this article the recent developments and the potential of expression targeting are reviewed for gene therapy approaches of cancer and retroviral infections.     

Selective DNA Delivery to Tumor Cells Using an Oligoarginine-LTVSPWY Peptide

DNA therapy for cancer requires efficient, selective and safe DNA delivery systems. Compared with other non-viral methods such as lipid or polymer-based DNA delivery vectors, peptide-based DNA delivery systems are biocompatible and biodegradable, which leads to lower immunogenicity and lower toxicity. Moreover, peptide vectors are easier to produce and their compositions easier to control because solid-phase peptide synthesis has been extensively developed. However, peptide-based systems for DNA delivery toward special tumor cells or tissues are still lacking. In this study, we constructed a non-viral 9rR-LTVSPWY peptide-based DNA delivery system and showed that it is able to efficiently and selectively transfect DNA into targeted tumor cells. This work presents a novel strategy for tumor cell-specific DNA delivery and a reference for designing more efficient DNA delivery systems targeted towards various types of cancer.     

A Novel Peptide Enhances Therapeutic Efficacy of Liposomal Anti-Cancer Drugs in Mice Models of Human Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. The lack of tumor specificity remains a major drawback for effective chemotherapies and results in dose-limiting toxicities. However, a ligand-mediated drug delivery system should be able to render chemotherapy more specific to tumor cells and less toxic to normal tissues. In this study, we isolated a novel peptide ligand from a phage-displayed peptide library that bound to non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines. The targeting phage bound to several NSCLC cell lines but not to normal cells. Both the targeting phage and the synthetic peptide recognized the surgical specimens of NSCLC with a positive rate of 75% (27 of 36 specimens). In severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice bearing NSCLC xenografts, the targeting phage specifically bound to tumor masses. The tumor homing ability of the targeting phage was inhibited by the cognate synthetic peptide, but not by a control or a WTY-mutated peptide. When the targeting peptide was coupled to liposomes carrying doxorubicin or vinorelbine, the therapeutic index of the chemotherapeutic agents and the survival rates of mice with human lung cancer xenografts markedly increased. Furthermore, the targeting liposomes increased drug accumulation in tumor tissues by 5.7-fold compared with free drugs and enhanced cancer cell apoptosis resulting from a higher concentration of bioavailable doxorubicin. The current study suggests that this tumor-specific peptide may be used to create chemotherapies specifically targeting tumor cells in the treatment of NSCLC and to design targeted gene transfer vectors or it may be used one in the diagnosis of this malignancy.     

Novel Therapeutic Approaches for Various Cancer Types Using a Modified Sleeping Beauty-Based Gene Delivery System

Successful gene therapy largely depends on the selective introduction of therapeutic genes into the appropriate target cancer cells. One of the most effective and promising approaches for targeting tumor tissue during gene delivery is the use of viral vectors, which allow for high efficiency gene delivery. However, the use of viral vectors is not without risks and safety concerns, such as toxicities, a host immune response towards the viral antigens or potential viral recombination into the host''s chromosome; these risks limit the clinical application of viral vectors. The Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon-based system is an attractive, non-viral alternative to viral delivery systems. SB may be less immunogenic than the viral vector system due to its lack of viral sequences. The SB-based gene delivery system can stably integrate into the host cell genome to produce the therapeutic gene product over the lifetime of a cell. However, when compared to viral vectors, the non-viral SB-based gene delivery system still has limited therapeutic efficacy due to the lack of long-lasting gene expression potential and tumor cell specific gene transfer ability. These limitations could be overcome by modifying the SB system through the introduction of the hTERT promoter and the SV40 enhancer. In this study, a modified SB delivery system, under control of the hTERT promoter in conjunction with the SV40 enhancer, was able to successfully transfer the suicide gene (HSV-TK) into multiple types of cancer cells. The modified SB transfected cancer cells exhibited a significantly increased cancer cell specific death rate. These data suggest that our modified SB-based gene delivery system can be used as a safe and efficient tool for cancer cell specific therapeutic gene transfer and stable long-term expression.     

Efficient and selective gene transfer into primary human brain tumors by using single-chain antibody-targeted adenoviral vectors with native tropism abolished

The application of adenoviral vectors in cancer gene therapy is hampered by low receptor expression on tumor cells and high receptor expression on normal epithelial cells. Targeting adenoviral vectors toward tumor cells may improve cancer gene therapy procedures by providing augmented tumor transduction and decreased toxicity to normal tissues. Targeting requires both the complete abolition of native tropism and the addition of a new specific binding ligand onto the viral capsid. Here we accomplished this by using doubly ablated adenoviral vectors, lacking coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor and alpha(v) integrin binding capacities, together with bispecific single-chain antibodies targeted toward human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or the epithelial cell adhesion molecule. These vectors efficiently and selectively targeted both alternative receptors on the surface of human cancer cells. Targeted doubly ablated adenoviral vectors were also very efficient and specific with primary human tumor specimens. With primary glioma cell cultures, EGFR targeting augmented the median gene transfer efficiency of doubly ablated adenoviral vectors 123-fold. Moreover, EGFR-targeted doubly ablated vectors were selective for human brain tumors versus the surrounding normal brain tissue. They transduced organotypic glioma and meningioma spheroids with efficiencies similar to those of native adenoviral vectors, while exhibiting greater-than-10-fold-reduced background levels on normal brain explants from the same patients. As a result, EGFR-targeted doubly ablated adenoviral vectors had a 5- to 38-fold-improved tumor-to-normal brain targeting index compared to native vectors. Hence, single-chain targeted doubly ablated adenoviral vectors are promising tools for cancer gene therapy. They should provide an improved therapeutic index with efficient tumor transduction and effective protection of normal tissue.     

Nanomaterials for cancer therapy and imaging

A variety of organic and inorganic nanomaterials with dimensions below several hundred nanometers are recently emerging as promising tools for cancer therapeutic and diagnostic applications due to their unique characteristics of passive tumor targeting. A wide range of nanomedicine platforms such as polymeric micelles, liposomes, dendrimers, and polymeric nanoparticles have been extensively explored for targeted delivery of anti-cancer agents, because they can accumulate in the solid tumor site via leaky tumor vascular structures, thereby selectively delivering therapeutic payloads into the desired tumor tissue. In recent years, nanoscale delivery vehicles for small interfering RNA (siRNA) have been also developed as effective therapeutic approaches to treat cancer. Furthermore, rationally designed multi-functional surface modification of these nanomaterials with cancer targeting moieties, protective polymers, and imaging agents can lead to fabrication versatile theragnostic nanosystems that allow simultaneous cancer therapy and diagnosis. This review highlights the current state and future prospects of diverse biomedical nanomaterials for cancer therapy and imaging.     

Bio and nanotechnological strategies for tumor-targeted gene therapy

Gene therapy is a new medical approach for the treatment of tumors. For safe and efficient gene therapy, therapeutic genes need to be delivered efficiently into the target tumor cells. Development of gene delivery systems to specifically recognize and target tumor cells and to distinguish them from normal cells, especially in the same tissue or organ, is one of the most important issues regarding the present gene delivery methodologies. The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect using the characteristics of angiogenic tumor blood vessels, as well as gene delivery systems recognizing hyperactivated receptors or intracellular signals, is broadly applied to tumor-targeted gene therapy. In addition, bacterial vectors can be a useful means for targeting hypoxic or anoxic regions of a tumor.     

Lectin functionalized nanocarriers for gene delivery

Gene therapy has emerged as one of the most promising therapeutic methods to treat various diseases. However, inadequate gene transfection efficacy during gene therapy demands further development of more efficient gene delivery strategies. Targeting genetic material to specific sites of action endows numerous advantages over non-targeted delivery. An ample variety of non-viral gene delivery vectors have been developed in recent years owing to the safety issues raised by viral vectors. Non-viral gene delivery vectors containing specific targeting ligands on their surfaces have been reported to enhance the gene transfection efficiency via receptor-mediated endocytosis for gene delivery. Among various targeting moieties investigated, carbohydrates and lectins (carbohydrate-binding proteins) played an essential role in gene delivery via either direct or reverse lectin targeting strategies. Lectins have a specific carbohydrate binding domain that can bind specifically to the carbohydrates. This review sheds light on various gene delivery nanovectors conjugated with either lectins or carbohydrates for enhanced gene transfection.     

Prodrug activation enzymes in cancer gene therapy

Among the broad array of genes that have been evaluated for tumor therapy, those encoding prodrug activation enzymes are especially appealing as they directly complement ongoing clinical chemotherapeutic regimes. These enzymes can activate prodrugs that have low inherent toxicity using both bacterial and yeast enzymes, or enhance prodrug activation by mammalian enzymes. The general advantage of the former is the large therapeutic index that can be achieved, and of the latter, the non-immunogenicity (supporting longer periods of prodrug activation) and the fact that the prodrugs will continue to have some efficacy after transgene expression is extinguished. This review article describes 13 different prodrug activation schemes developed over the last 15 years, two of which - activation of ganciclovir by viral thymidine kinase and activation of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil - are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. Essentially all of these prodrug activation enzymes mediate toxicity through disruption of DNA replication, which occurs at differentially high rates in tumor cells compared with most normal cells. In cancer gene therapy, vectors target delivery of therapeutic genes to tumor cells, in contrast to the use of antibodies in antibody-directed prodrug therapy. Vector targeting is usually effected by direct injection into the tumor mass or surrounding tissues, but the efficiency of gene delivery is usually low. Thus it is important that the activated drug is able to act on non-transduced tumor cells. This bystander effect may require cell-to-cell contact or be mediated by facilitated diffusion or extracellular activation to target neighboring tumor cells. Effects at distant sites are believed to be mediated by the immune system, which can be mobilized to recognize tumor antigens by prodrug-activated gene therapy. Prodrug activation schemes can be combined with each other and with other treatments, such as radiation, in a synergistic manner. Use of prodrug wafers for intratumoral drug activation and selective permeabilization of the tumor vasculature to prodrugs and vectors should further increase the value of this new therapeutic modality.