The diversity, antimicrobial and anticancer activity of endophytic fungi associated with the medicinal plant Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville (Fabaceae) from the Brazilian savannah

The diversity and biological activities of the endophytic fungi associated with the Brazilian medicinal plant Stryphnodendron adstringens were studied. A total of 320 fungal isolates were obtained, and 66 phylotypes comprising 25 genera were identified. The fungal community of S. adstringens displayed high richness, diversity and low dominance indices. The most abundant phylotypes were closely related to Diaporthe phaseolorum, Guignardia camelliae, and Preussia pseudominima. Sixteen fungal extracts displayed biological activities when screened against bacteria, fungi, cancer cell lines, and amastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis. The extract of phylotype Nigrospora cf. oryzae exhibited a selective antifungal activity and inhibited the growth of Candida albicans and Cladosporium sphaerospermum. The extracts of Diaporthe cf. phaseolorum and Xylaria sp. phylotypes displayed anticancer activities. Our results indicate that the endophytes associate with this medicinal plant may be a source for novel drugs.     

云南元江干热河谷五种优势植物的内生真菌多样性

从蔓草虫豆（Atylosia scarabaeoides）、余甘子（Phyllanthus emblica）和黄花稔（Sida acuta）等5种云南元江干热河谷植物的525个组织块中,共分离得到内生真菌371株,内生真菌的分离频率在0.61～0.92之间,且所有植物叶内生真菌的分离频率都明显高于茎（P<0.05）。经形态学鉴定,内生真菌分属于拟茎点霉属（Phomopsis sp.）、离蠕孢属（Bipolaris sp.）和交链孢属（Alternaria sp.）等32个分类单元。拟茎点霉属为干热河谷植物优势内生真菌属,从所有被调查植物的茎叶中都分离得到该属真菌,且相对分离频率高达12.90%～50.54%。内生真菌群落组成的多样性和相似性分析结果表明,云南元江干热河谷植物内生真菌多样性偏低、宿主专一性较小。     

Diversity of fungal latent pathogens and true endophytes associated with fruit trees in Uruguay

We have explored the fungal diversity in asymptomatic twigs of apple, peach, pear and blueberry trees, with the objective of discerning between true endophytes and latent pathogens. Several fungal genera containing known bark pathogens were found. Seven Diaporthe species—D. oxe, D. infecunda, D. serafiniae, D. phaseolorum, D. terebinthifolii, D. foeniculina and D. brasiliensis—were identified, along with Botryosphaeria dothidea, Neofusicoccum parvum, Neofusicoccum australe, Cytospora sp., Cytospora acaciae and Pestalotiopsis spp. A pathogenicity trial was undertaken to determine the role of these species on apple, pear, blueberry and peach shoots. Diaporthe brasiliensis, D. foeniculina, Diaporthe inconspicua, D. terebinthifolii, Diaporthe sp.1, Cytospora‐like isolates and Pestalotiopsis spp. isolates produced no lesions on inoculated shoots, suggesting that they could be considered true endophytes on their respective hosts. Meanwhile, some of the isolates of Diaporthe—D. oxe, Diaporthe sp.2, D. infecunda and D. serafiniae, B. dothidea, N. parvum and N. australe could be regarded as latent pathogens in their respective hosts as they produced sunken cankers and necrosis on inoculated shoots. These results demonstrate that apple, pear, blueberry and peach healthy shoots can host many known endophytic fungi along with potential wood disease‐causing fungi that should be regarded as latent pathogens.     

Diversity of the endophytic fungi associated with the ancient and narrowly endemic neotropical plant Vellozia gigantea from the endangered Brazilian rupestrian grasslands

This study focused on the taxonomy and diversity of the endophytic fungi associated with Vellozia gigantea, an endemic, ancient, and endangered plant species that occurs only in the rupestrian grasslands of Brazil. A total of 285 fungal isolates were recovered from leaves and roots of the V. gigantea, which were identified in 27 genera and 87 different taxa using molecular taxonomy methods. Xylaria berteri, Diaporthe sp. 1, Nigrospora oryzae, Muscodor sp. 1, Colletotrichum aeschynomene, and Trichoderma viride occurred in the highest frequency in both the leaf and root. Diaporthe was the most abundant genus, with 70 endophytic isolates recovered from the leaves and roots. Among all the taxa identified, 62 occurred as singlets, including those of the genera Clonostachys, Coccomyces, Crucellisporiopsis, Daldinia, Myxotrichum, Pallidocercospora, Pezicula, Peyronellaea, and Pseudocercospora. The diversity indices displayed high values, showing that V. gigantea shelters a diverse and rich mycobiota. Our results indicate that V. gigantea shelters in its tissues a highly diverse and cryptic mycobiota, including several rare species previously unreported as endophytes, but that are reported to have different ecological functions, which might be an important biological component contributing to the fitness of the plants living in the rupestrian grassland.     

Endophytic fungi from the root tubers of medicinal plant Stephania dielsiana and their antimicrobial activity

The adverse effects of chemical synthetic fungicides on agricultural fields and the environment are driving a need to search for safer and less environmentally harmful plant protectants to move toward more sustainable development of agriculture. The endophytic fungal community associated with the medicinal plant Stephania dielsiana, and its potential for providing antimicrobial secondary metabolites were investigated. A total of 26 isolates of endophytic fungi were obtained, and 21 isolates were identified and classified into eight different genera, including Briansuttonomyces, Glomerella, Pleosporales, Diaporthe, Phoma, Penicillium, Periconia and Colletotrichum, and the most frequent endophytic species obtained were Diaporthe phaseolorum, Penicillium sp., Periconia igniari and Colletotrichum sp. The ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract of the endophytic fungus Diaporthe phaseolorum Stdif6 displayed the most significant antifungal activity against all tested phytopathogens, with EC₅₀ values ranging from 0.0138 to 0.3103 mg/mL. While the EtOAc extract of the endophytic fungus Penicillium sp. Stdif9 exhibited greater potential for antibacterial activity, with the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values against seven bacteria ranging from 1.25 to 6 mg/mL. The remarkable antimicrobial activity of fungal endophytes suggests that fungal endophytes harbored inside the root tubers of S. dielsiana hold great promise as biocontrol agents against a broad spectrum of economically significant pathogens.     

Diversity and Antimicrobial Activity of Culturable Endophytic Fungi Isolated from Moso Bamboo Seeds

Bamboos, regarded as therapeutic agents in ethnomedicine, have been used to inhibit inflammation and enhance natural immunity for a long time in Asia, and there are many bamboo associated fungi with medical and edible value. In the present study, a total of 350 fungal strains were isolated from the uncommon moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) seeds for the first time. The molecular diversity of these endophytic fungi was investigated and bioactive compound producers were screened for the first time. All the fungal endophytes were categorized into 69 morphotypes according to culturable characteristics and their internal transcriber spacer (ITS) regions were analyzed by BLAST search with the NCBI database. The fungal isolates showed high diversity and were divided in Ascomycota (98.0%) and Basidiomycota (2.0%), including at least 19 genera in nine orders. Four particular genera were considered to be newly recorded bambusicolous fungi, including Leptosphaerulina, Simplicillium, Sebacina and an unknown genus in Basidiomycetes. Furthermore, inhibitory effects against clinical pathogens and phytopathogens were screened preliminarily and strains B09 (Cladosporium sp.), B34 (Curvularia sp.), B35 (undefined genus 1), B38 (Penicillium sp.) and zzz816 (Shiraia sp.) displayed broad-spectrum activity against clinical bacteria and yeasts by the agar diffusion method. The crude extracts of isolates B09, B34, B35, B38 and zzz816 under submerged fermentation, also demonstrated various levels of bioactivities against bambusicolous pathogenic fungi. This study is the first report on the antimicrobial activity of endophytic fungi associated with moso bamboo seeds, and the results show that they could be exploited as a potential source of bioactive compounds and plant defense activators. In addition, it is the first time that strains of Shiraia sp. have been isolated and cultured from moso bamboo seeds, and one of them (zzz816) could produce hypocrellin A at high yield, which is significantly different from the other strains published.     

The genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaporthe</Emphasis>: a rich source of diverse and bioactive metabolites

The genus Diaporthe (asexual state: Phomopsis) comprises pathogenic, endophytic and saprobic species with both temperate and tropical distributions. Although species of Diaporthe have in the past chiefly been distinguished based on host association, studies have confirmed several taxa to have wide host ranges, suggesting that they move freely between hosts, frequently co-colonizing diseased or dead tissue, while some species are known to be host-specific. They are also very frequently isolated as endophytes of seed plants. Due to their importance as plant pathogens, the genus has been thoroughly investigated for secondary metabolites, including during screening programs aimed at the discovery of novel bioactive natural products, but the respective information has never been compiled. Therefore, we have examined the relevant literature to explore and highlight the major classes of metabolites of Diaporthe and their Phomopsis conidial states. These fungi predominantly produce a large number of polyketides, but cytochalasins and other types of commonly encountered fungal secondary metabolites are also predominant in some species. Interestingly, not a single metabolite which is also known from the host plant has ever been isolated as a major component from an endophytic Diaporthe strain, despite the fact that many of the recent studies were targeting endophytic fungi of medicinal plants.     

广西夹竹桃内生真菌的多样性和抑制几种水产病原菌活性筛选

为研究夹竹桃(Nerium oleander)内生真菌的多样性并评价其次生代谢产物的活性，该研究对广西夹竹桃(Nerium oleander)的内生真菌进行分离纯化，采用形态学和ITS序列分析结合的方法进行鉴定，以5种指示菌(其中有3种弧菌)对内生真菌提取物进行抑菌活性筛选。结果表明：(1)从广西夹竹桃中共得到19株内生真菌，这19株内生真菌都属于子囊菌门，涵盖5个目7个属，包括炭疽菌属(Colletotrichum)、球座菌属(Guignardia)、叶点霉属(Phyllosticta)、新壳梭孢属(Neofusicoccum)、曲霉属(Aspergillus)、隔孢壳科新属(Nothophoma)和间座壳属(Diaporthe),优势属为炭疽菌属(分离率为36.85%)和球座菌属(分离率为21.05%),其中炭疽菌属主要分布于茎，球座菌属全部来源于叶。(2)jing-117(Neofusicoccum sp.)和ye-130(Guignardia sp.)对坎氏弧菌有较为特异的抑菌效果，ye-136(Aspergillus sp.)能同时抑制蜡样芽孢杆菌和坎氏弧菌，ye-135(A...     

Fungal communities associated with species of Fraxinus tolerant to ash dieback,and their potential for biological control

Ash dieback, caused by the fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, has threatened ash trees in Europe for more than two decades. However, little is known of how endophytic communities affect the pathogen, and no effective disease management tools are available. While European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is severely affected by the disease, other more distantly related ash species do not seem to be affected. We hypothesise that fungal endophytic communities of tolerant ash species can protect the species against ash dieback, and that selected endophytes have potential as biocontrol agents. These hypotheses were tested by isolating members of the fungal communities of five tolerant ash species, and identifying them using ITS regions. Candidate endophytes were tested by an in vitro antagonistic assay with H.fraxineus. From a total of 196 isolates we identified 9 fungal orders, 15 families, and 40 species. Fungi in orders Pleosporales, such as Boeremia exigua and Diaporthe spp., and Hypocreales (e.g., Fusarium sp.), were recovered in most communities, suggesting they are common taxa. The in vitro antagonistic assay revealed five species with high antagonistic activity against H. fraxineus. These endophytes were identified based on ITS region as Sclerostagonospora sp., Setomelanomma holmii, Epicoccum nigrum, B. exigua and Fusarium sp. Three of these taxa have been described previously as antagonists of plant pathogenic microbes, and are of interest for future studies of their potential as biological control agents against ash dieback, especially for valuable ash trees in parks and urban areas.     

Culturable endophytic filamentous fungi from leaves of transgenic imidazolinone-tolerant sugarcane and its non-transgenic isolines

The diversity of endophytic filamentous fungi from leaves of transgenic imidazolinone-tolerant sugarcane plants and its isoline was evaluated by cultivation followed by amplified rDNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) of randomly selected strains. Transgenic and non-transgenic cultivars and their crop management (herbicide application or manual weed control) were used to assess the possible non-target effects of genetically modified sugarcane on the fungal endophytic community. A total of 14 ARDRA haplotypes were identified in the endophytic community of sugarcane. Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing revealed a rich community represented by 12 different families from the Ascomycota phylum. Some isolates had a high sequence similarity with genera that are common endophytes in tropical climates, such as Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Guignardia, Pestalotiopsis and Xylaria. Analysis of molecular variance indicated that fluctuations in fungal population were related to both transgenic plants and herbicide application. While herbicide applications quickly induced transient changes in the fungal community, transgenic plants induced slower changes that were maintained over time. These results represent the first draft on composition of endophytic filamentous fungi associated with sugarcane plants. They are an important step in understanding the possible effects of transgenic plants and their crop management on the fungal endophytic community.     

Natural products of Alternaria sp., an endophytic fungus isolated from Salvadora persica from Saudi Arabia

This study is to evaluate the potential of endophytic fungi of Salvadora persica for the production of bioactive compounds against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Forty-two fungal isolates were obtained from 135 young and old stem and 125 root segments. Those 42 isolates representing ten fungi include: Trichoderma sp. (the most common), two species of Alternaria, Rhizopus arrhizus and 6 sterile mycelia. The ten fungi were grown in liquid culture and their crude extracts were tested against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Nine crude extracts gave positive reactions against pathogenic bacteria of which Alternaria sp. (A8) was chosen further study. The fungal isolate was growing as sterile mycelium and was identified by phylogenetic analyses based on LSU rDNA sequence data and it might represent undescribed species of Alternaria. Sixty-two bioactive chemical compounds were identified from the ethyl acetate crude extracts of Alternaria sp., of which the following were recorded as major compounds in the active sub-fractions. These compounds showed strong antibacterial activity in combination.     

Isolation and characterization of endophytic taxol-producing fungi from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Taxus chinensis</Emphasis>

This study investigated the endophytic fungi diversity of Taxus chinensis and screened the taxol-producing fungi in the host. A total of 115 endophytic fungi isolates obtained from bark segments of T. chinensis were grouped into 23 genera based on the morphological traits and sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2), indicating endophytic fungi in T. chinensis are diverse and abundant. Diaporthe, Phomopsis (anamorph of Diaporthe), Acremonium, and Pezicula were the dominant genera, whereas the remaining genera were infrequent groups. The 13 representative species of the distinct genera were capable of producing taxol verified by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Among the taxol-producing fungi, the yield of taxol produced by the Metarhizium anisopliae, H-27 was 846.1 μg l⁻¹ in reformative potato dextrose liquid medium, and the fungal taxol was further validated by mass spectrometry (MS). The taxol-producing fungi (92.3%) were infrequent communities, suggesting that infrequent fungi associated with T. chinensis might be a fascinating reservoir of taxol-generating fungi.     

Isolation and identification of endophytic and mycorrhizal fungi from seeds and roots of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrobium</Emphasis> (Orchidaceae)

The seed germination of orchids under natural conditions requires association with mycorrhizal fungi. Dendrobium nobile and Dendrobium chrysanthum are threatened orchid species in China where they are considered medicinal plants. For conservation and application of Dendrobium using symbiosis technology, we isolated culturable endophytic and mycorrhizal fungi colonized in the protocorms and adult roots of two species plants and identified them by morphological and molecular analyses (5.8S and nrLSU). Of the 127 endophytic fungi isolated, 11 Rhizoctonia-like strains were identified as Tulasnellales (three strains from protocorms of D. nobile), Sebacinales (three strains from roots of D. nobile and two strains from protocorms of D. chrysanthum) and Cantharellales (three strains from roots of D. nobile), respectively. In addition, species of Xylaria, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Colletotrichum, Pestalotiopsis, and Phomopsis were the predominant non-mycorrhizal fungi isolated, and their probable ecological roles in the Dendrobium plants are discussed. These fungal resources will be of great importance for the large-scale cultivation of Dendrobium plants using symbiotic germination technology and for the screening of bioactive metabolites from them in the future.     

Fungal endophytes associated with the mistletoe <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phoradendron perrottettii</Emphasis> and its host tree <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tapirira guianensis</Emphasis>

The endophytic mycobiota of leaves and stems of the mistletoe Phoradendron perrottettii and its host tree Tapirira guianensis, two physiologically connected plant species of the Brazilian savannah in southeastern Brazil, were investigated to evaluate host and organ recurrence among endophytes. Leaves and stems of P. perrottettii and leaves of T. guianensis were sampled in the dry and wet season. Stems of T. guianensis were also sampled in the wet season. Endophytes were isolated by an adapted trituration and particle filtration protocol. A total of 1,615 isolates representing 99 species and 20 sterile morphotypes were recovered; 64 morphospecies occurred as singletons. The number of isolates and species was higher in the wet season. Leaves of P. perrottettii were less densely colonized than other organs studied, but were the most species-rich. Conversely, stems of T. guianensis yielded more isolates but were less species-rich. Both plants were found to harbor similar but distinguishable endophytic assemblages. The Jaccard’s index of similarity between the fungal assemblages of both plants was 0.82, higher than found for other plants in similar habitats. The fungal species composition seemed to be influenced by the collection season and organ type, as demonstrated by multivariate correspondence analysis. Paraconiothyrium brasiliense, P. sporulosum and Verticillium leptobactrum were the dominant species in P. perrottettii. In leaves of T. guianensis, Pseudocercospora sp., Phomopsis sp. 1 and Lecanicillium psalliotae were the most frequent, while Stagonospora sp. 1 and Phomopsis sp. 1 were the dominant endophytes in its stems. The results indicated that some of the dominant endophytic taxa isolated in this study colonize different hosts and plant organs while others seem to exhibit a high degree of host or organ recurrence. This study represents the first evaluation of diversity of fungal endophytes in natural vegetation of the Brazilian savannah and contributes information about the distribution and possible specificity of endophytes in tropical dicotyledoneous plants.     

The Endophytic Mycoflora of Bark,Leaf, and Stem Tissues of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Azadirachta indica</Emphasis> A. Juss (Neem) from Varanasi (India)

A systematic study was made of the endophytes of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (the neem tree) growing in several of its natural habitats in India. A total of 233 isolates of endophytic fungi representing 18 fungal taxa were obtained from segments of bark, stem, and leaves of this tree. Hyphomycetes (62.2%) were the most prevalent followed by the Coelomycetes (27.4%) and Mycelia Sterilia (7.7%). As mathematically determined, the maximum species richness and frequency of colonization of endophytes appeared in leaf segments rather than stem and bark tissues from each location. Endophytic colonization frequency was also greater in leaves (45.5%) than bark (31.5%). The leaf samples from all locations were nearly constant in their endophytic composition, whereas bark samples showed maximum diversity at different locations. Inter-site comparisons for endophytic diversity, however, were not significantly different with Loc1 and Loc2 having a maximum of 66.67% J _c. The smallest similarity was between Loc2 and Loc3 of 54.17% J _c. The dominant endophytic fungi isolated were Phomopsis oblonga, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Pestalotiopsis sp., Trichoderma sp, and Aspergillus sp. Genera such as Periconia, Stenella, and Drechslera are reported here for the first time as endophytes from this host plant. This report illustrates the value of sampling different tissues of a given plant in several locations to obtain the greatest species diversity of endophytes. The rich and sizeable collection of endophytic fungi from this specific plant may represent a unique source of one or more of the interesting and useful bioactive compounds normally associated with A. indica such as the azadirachtins and related tetranortriterpenoids.     

Quality control by leaf-cutting ants: evidence from communities of endophytic fungi in foraged and rejected vegetation

Leaf-cutting ants of the genera Acromyrmex and Atta forage vegetation for incorporation into their mutualistic fungal gardens. However, the presence of certain endophytic fungi in this predominantly leaf-based material could affect the fungal garden and thus the choice of material by the ants. The present study was conducted to document the endophytic fungal communities occurring in the vegetation being transported by workers of Atta laevigata into their nests and to compare this community structure with that of the vegetative material subsequently rejected from the nests. We found considerable diversity in the fungi isolated. Acremonium, Cylindrocladium, Drechslera, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Ulocladium and two unidentified morphospecies were significantly more common in rejected compared with foraged material, and some of these genera include mycoparasites, which could represent a threat to the fungal gardens. Conversely, Colletotrichum, Pestalotiopsis, Phomopsis, Xylaria and an unidentified morphospecies were more common in carried compared with rejected material. The possibility that ants have a ‘quality-control’ mechanism based on the presence of antagonistic fungal endophytes is discussed, as is the potential use of these fungi as biocontrol agents against Attini pests.     

Spatial and temporal variation of fungal endophytic richness and diversity associated to the phyllosphere of olive cultivars

Fungal endophytes are micro-organisms that colonize healthy plant tissues without causing disease symptoms. They are described as plant growth and disease resistance promoters and have shown antimicrobial activity. The spatial-temporal distribution of endophytic communities in olive cultivars has been poorly explored. This study aims to investigate the richness and diversity of endophytic fungi in different seasons and sites, within the Alentejo region, Portugal. Additionally, and because the impact of some pathogenic fungi (e.g. Colletotrichum spp.) varies according to olive cultivars; three cultivars, Galega vulgar, Cobrançosa and Azeiteira, were sampled. 1868 fungal isolates were identified as belonging to 26 OTUs; 13 OTUs were identified to the genera level and 13 to species level. Cultivar Galega vulgar and season autumn showed significant higher values in terms of endophytic richness and diversity. At site level, Elvas showed the lowest fungal richness and diversity of fungal endophytes. This study reinforces the importance of exploring the combined spatio-temporal distribution of the endophytic biodiversity in different olive cultivars. Knowledge about endophytic communities may help to better understand their functions in plants hosts, such as their ecological dynamics with pathogenic fungi, which can be explored for their use as biocontrol agents.     

Fungal endophytes from leaves of Avicennia marina growing in semi-arid environment as a promising source for bioactive compounds

Endophytic fungi are broadly dispersed residing inside plant tissues and have been demonstrated as a treasure for bioactive natural products. Unexplored harsh and heavy metal contaminant habitat of Avicennia marina may have diverse and potential fungal association. Therefore, this work aimed to isolate the culturable fungal endophytes associated with leaves of A. marina and to evaluate their medical potentialities. Seventeen isolates of endophyte fungi were isolated from healthy leaves and their antimicrobial activities were evaluated. Results showed that isolates had activity against micro-organisms in addition to their antioxidant activity produced a variety of phenolic compounds, besides exhibited a lowest cytotoxicity against ATCC-CCL-81 cell line. Consequently, selected endophytic fungal isolates were identified genetically as Chaetomium sp., Chaetomium madrasense, Chaetomium sp., Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus hiratsukae, Aspergillus ochraceus, Alternaria tenuissima and Curvularia lunata with gene bank accession numbers MT089951, MT089952, MT089953, MT089954, MT089955, MT089956, MT089957 and MT089958 respectively. The most potent fungus extract was analysed using Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry which verified the presence of numerous bioactive compounds. These findings confirmed that new endophytic fungal strains derived from A. marina thrive in harsh ecosystem produce bioactive metabolites which can be recommended as a novel source for drug discovery.     

Comparative lipid profiling of two endophytic fungal isolates--Colletotrichum sp. and Alternaria sp. having potential utilities as biodiesel feedstock

Lipid accumulation abilities of two endophytic fungal isolates - Colletotrichum sp. and Alternaria sp. grown under optimum and nutrient-stress conditions were investigated and compared. Significant variations in lipid contents, ranging from 30% to 58% of their dry biomass were found in liquid culture using various carbon sources. Since, >50% of the total lipid was estimated to be neutral lipid for both the fungal species, predicted biodiesel properties were theoretically calculated based upon the determined fatty acid profiles; and the values were found to be comparable to those of commonly used plant oils for biodiesel production. The two endophytes grew successfully on the combined rice straw and wheat bran as substrate that was degraded by their secretory enzymes including cellulase [1.21-2.51 FPU/g dry substrate (gds)] in solid state fermentation and produced substantial amount of lipid (60.32-84.30 mg/gds). Our study highlights the potential utilities of these two novel endophytic fungi as biodiesel feedstock.     

Antifungal properties of Singapore gorgonians: a preliminary study

Gorgonians possess a huge array of secondary metabolites for various functions, many of which are not known. One of these functions is antifungal. This study investigates if gorgonians from reefs in Singapore can defend themselves against the settlement and invasion of fungi. Crude extracts from 10 species of gorgonians from three families, Ellisellidae, Subergorgiidae and Plexauridae, were screened against nine species of deuteromycetous fungi previously isolated from gorgonians. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) experiments were carried out in 96-microwell plates using extract concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 24.0 mg/ml. Extracts from Euplexaura cf. pinnata, Echinogorgia sp. C, Junceella cf. gemmacea, Subergorgia suberosa, Ctenocella cf. umbraculum and Junceella sp. A were found to possess inhibitory effects on fungi. MICs range from 1.5 to 18.0 mg/ml. Results showed that most of the antifungal activities were exhibited by Euplexaura cf. pinnata and Echinogorgia sp. C from the family Plexauridae. However, for most gorgonian species, the concentrations required to inhibit fungal growth are much higher than the natural concentrations of extracts found in gorgonian tissues. Only the extracts of Echinogorgia sp. C, C. cf. umbraculum and S. suberosa were found to inhibit fungal growth of a few fungal species at a concentration lower than that of its natural concentration.