一种新发现的基因表达调控机制——核糖开关

最近发现 ,某些依赖代谢物调节的基因转录产物的 5′UTR存在特征性结构———核糖开关(riboswitch) .核糖开关可以特异性结合代谢物 ,通过构象变化 ,在转录或翻译水平上调节基因表达 .核糖开关广泛存在于G+ 及G-细菌的代谢相关基因中 ,在真菌、植物中也有发现 .核糖开关调节维生素、氨基酸、核苷酸等基础代谢过程 ,其调节基因表达不需要任何蛋白因子作为中介 ,在进化上可能是RNA世界遗留的分子化石 .核糖开关可用于研究基因功能 ,开发新型药物及基因治疗 .     

核糖开关的结构和调控机理

一种新发现的RNA分子——核糖开关,通过感知代谢物浓度的变化调控目标基因的表达。它可以调整自身的结构直接结合代谢物小分子,而不需要蛋白因子的参与。在原核生物中发现了大量的核糖开关,在真核生物如植物和真菌中也发现了核糖开关。核糖开关由适体域和表达平台两个功能域组成,能在不同水平调控基因的表达,如转录终止、翻译起始、mRNA剪辑和加工。核糖开关不需要蛋白因子的参与,因此人们认为它可能是古代RNA世界的遗留物。核糖开关作为RNA传感器可以设计成一种基因控制元件,在未来的基因治疗方面可能具有很大的应用前景。     

核开关：一个新的基因调控元件，一类潜在的药物靶点

核开关是一类通过结合小分子代谢物调控基因表达的mRNA元件.它位于特定的mRNA区域,可以不依赖任何蛋白质因子而直接结合小分子代谢物,继而发生构象重排,影响该mRNA的活动.核开关在特定细菌中,参与调控包括维生素B₁₂和甲硫氨酸生物合成等在内的代谢途径.核开关的发现,尤其是其可以特异性紧密结合特定配体,从而精确调控生物基本代谢途径的特征,使人们开始关注它在科研和医学上的应用潜力.核开关的研究进展、主要特点和作用机制已经引起了人们的关注和思考.     

环二鸟苷单磷酸核糖开关的结构与功能

环二鸟苷单磷酸(c-di-GMP)是细菌中广泛存在的一类核苷类第二信使分子,能够调控细菌的生物被膜形成、运动性、黏附、毒力以及胞外多糖的产生等众多生理活动。核糖开关是m RNA 5′-非翻译区(5′-Untranslational region,5′-UTR)的一段RNA序列,包含可以识别并结合配体的保守序列——适配体区(Aptamer domain,AD),以及结构多变、可以调控下游编码基因的表达平台区(Expression platform,EP)。当代谢物分子浓度比较高时,其与适配体区结合,引起下游的表达平台区发生构象变化,进而实现对下游基因的调节。目前已发现c-di-GMP-Ⅰ和c-di-GMP-Ⅱ两类c-di-GMP的核糖开关。它们通过特异性地结合c-di-GMP,调控种类繁多的下游基因的表达。c-di-GMP-I核糖开关分布广泛,尤其在厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)和变形菌门(Proteobacteria)的细菌中最为丰富。c-di-GMP-Ⅱ核糖开关具备变构核酶的功能,结合c-di-GMP后在其非典型剪切位点处发生结构变化,调节下游基因表达。文中围绕c-di-GMP核糖开关的发现、功能、分类以及下游调控基因的功能进行综述与分析。     

核糖开关及其在抗菌药物方面的研究进展

核糖开关是一类与核酸、氨基酸、金属离子、糖类衍生物以及辅酶等特异性配体结合的RNA元件,它与配体结合后通过调控相应下游的基因表达起到控制细胞生命及活动的作用。目前核糖开关是基因调控方面的研究热点,应用于大量筛选工程菌株、构建新型生物传感器以及作为抗菌药作用的新靶点。综述了几种主要的核糖开关(如:嘌呤核糖开关、赖氨酸核糖开关、环二鸟苷酸核糖开关、glm S核糖开关、TPP核糖开关、FMN核糖开关等)在抗菌药物靶点方面的研究进展。     

代谢物生物传感器:微生物细胞工厂构建中的合成生物学工具

代谢物生物传感器作为重要的合成生物学工具,能够感应细胞内代谢物浓度的变化,转化为特定信号输出,在微生物细胞工厂的构建中显现出巨大的应用潜力。其主要组成部分通常包括生物识别元件和信号输出元件,前者来源于自然界中丰富的调控元件,如转录因子、核糖开关等,有着不同的响应机理,后者可以为荧光信号、生长优势、特定代谢通路的开闭等,取决于应用所需。着重介绍了近年来代谢物生物传感器在微生物细胞工厂构建中的应用实例,主要包括目标化合物菌株的高通量筛选、选择、胞内代谢动态调控和非遗传异质性选择,同时也着重讨论了代谢物生物传感器的性能对于应用的影响和在实际应用中可能面临的机遇与挑战。     

核糖开关与基因表达调控

核糖开关(riboswitch)是近几年基因表达调控研究的一个热点.核糖开关位于mRNA的非翻译区(untranslated regions, UTR),能够直接感受胞内外信号并引起自身二级结构的变化,在转录或后转录（翻译和mRNA稳定性）水平实现对下游相关基因的表达调控,该过程不依赖于包括蛋白质在内的其它任何因子的作用. 根据现已发现的核糖开关所能识别的信号因子类型,可以将其分为4类,即小分子代谢物、金属离子、环境因素及空载tRNA敏感的核糖开关;其中,小分子代谢物敏感的核糖开关是发现和研究最多且最深入的一类. 随着研究的深入,将会有更多的核糖开关被发现,这不仅有助于理解生物进化与环境适应性,而且在生物学基础研究,新型药物的开发以及工业生产领域都将发挥重要作用.     

适体核酶型人工核糖开关的设计

适体核酶型核糖开关是近年出现的一种人工基因调控开关。最常见的适体核酶由锤头状核酶和适体组成,结构清晰,易于设计。作为一种顺式作用元件,适体核酶型核糖开关在特异性配体的作用下,无需蛋白质辅助,即可通过调节自身裂解反应,调控mRNA的翻译,可应用于多种细胞的基因调控。目前适体核酶型核糖开关的设计,主要是通过合理组装核酶与适体元件,整合到mRNA后再进行功能筛选。该基因调控开关调节幅度大、响应迅速、调控方式简洁,有可能应用于体内传感器、基因治疗、生物处理器等多个领域。     

glmS核糖开关研究进展

glmS核酶是存在于革兰氏阳性细菌中,对葡糖胺-6-磷酸(GlcN6P)的合成起反馈抑制作用的核糖开关。同时,glmS核糖开关是一种位于glmS基因5′非翻译区的自剪切核酶。glmS核糖开关/核酶通过结合GlcN6P后自剪切抑制下游基因glmS的表达。对glmS核糖开关结构和功能的研究将有助于开发新的抗生素作用靶点。本文对glmS核糖开关的结构和功能进行阐述并介绍glmS核糖开关近年来的研究进展和应用。     

依赖于5′端非编码区高级结构的真核生物mRNA翻译调控

翻译水平的调控是真核基因表达调控的重要环节.近年来的研究表明,许多真核基因的翻译依赖于RNA5′端非编码区的结构元件.一些小结构元件,如铁离子反应元件,具有1个茎环结构,由铁离子介导控制转铁蛋白的翻译.核糖开关通过结合特定代谢分子在2种结构状态下切换,调控可变剪接和翻译起始.另1个高度结构化的mRNA元件是内部核糖体进入位点,通过富集核糖体和起始因子促进基因的表达.本文综述了依赖于小结构元件、内部核糖体进入位点和核糖开关的真核基因翻译起始调控相应的研究成果和研究方法.对于研究的前景以及可能存在的挑战也作出阐述.     

Themes and variations in riboswitch structure and function

The complexity of gene expression control by non-coding RNA has been highlighted by the recent progress in the field of riboswitches. Discovered a decade ago, riboswitches represent a diverse group of non-coding mRNA regions that possess a unique ability to directly sense cellular metabolites and modulate gene expression through formation of alternative metabolite-free and metabolite-bound conformations. Such protein-free metabolite sensing domains utilize sophisticated three-dimensional folding of RNA molecules to discriminate between a cognate ligand from related compounds so that only the right ligand would trigger a genetic response. Given the variety of riboswitch ligands ranging from small cations to large coenzymes, riboswitches adopt a great diversity of structures. Although many riboswitches share structural principles to build metabolite-competent folds, form precise ligand-binding pockets, and communicate a ligand-binding event to downstream regulatory regions, virtually all riboswitch classes possess unique features for ligand recognition, even those tuned to recognize the same metabolites. Here we present an overview of the biochemical and structural research on riboswitches with a major focus on common principles and individual characteristics adopted by these regulatory RNA elements during evolution to specifically target small molecules and exert genetic responses. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Riboswitches.     

Riboswitches as antibacterial drug targets

New validated cellular targets are needed to reinvigorate antibacterial drug discovery. This need could potentially be filled by riboswitches-messenger RNA (mRNA) structures that regulate gene expression in bacteria. Riboswitches are unique among RNAs that serve as drug targets in that they have evolved to form structured and highly selective receptors for small drug-like metabolites. In most cases, metabolite binding to the receptor represses the expression of the gene(s) encoded by the mRNA. If a new metabolite analog were designed that binds to the receptor, the gene(s) regulated by that riboswitch could be repressed, with a potentially lethal effect to the bacteria. Recent work suggests that certain antibacterial compounds discovered decades ago function at least in part by targeting riboswitches. Herein we will summarize the experiments validating riboswitches as drug targets, describe the existing technology for riboswitch drug discovery and discuss the challenges that may face riboswitch drug discoverers.     

Amino acid recognition and gene regulation by riboswitches

Riboswitches specifically control expression of genes predominantly involved in biosynthesis, catabolism and transport of various cellular metabolites in organisms from all three kingdoms of life. Among many classes of identified riboswitches, two riboswitches respond to amino acids lysine and glycine to date. Though these riboswitches recognize small compounds, they both belong to the largest riboswitches and have unique structural and functional characteristics. In this review, we attempt to characterize molecular recognition principles employed by amino acid-responsive riboswitches to selectively bind their cognate ligands and to effectively perform a gene regulation function. We summarize up-to-date biochemical and genetic data available for the lysine and glycine riboswitches and correlate these results with recent high-resolution structural information obtained for the lysine riboswitch. We also discuss the contribution of lysine riboswitches to antibiotic resistance and outline potential applications of riboswitches in biotechnology and medicine.     

依赖于5′端非编码区高级结构的真核生物mRNA翻译调控

翻译水平的调控是真核基因表达调控的重要环节.近年来的研究表明,许多真核基因的翻译依赖于RNA 5′端非编码区的结构元件.一些小结构元件,如铁离子反应元件,具有1个茎环结构,由铁离子介导控制转铁蛋白的翻译. 核糖开关通过结合特定代谢分子在2种结构状态下切换,调控可变剪接和翻译起始.另1个高度结构化的mRNA元件是内部核糖体进入位点,通过富集核糖体和起始因子促进基因的表达.本文综述了依赖于小结构元件、内部核糖体进入位点和核糖开关的真核基因翻译起始调控相应的研究成果和研究方法.对于研究的前景以及可能存在的挑战也作出阐述.     

Purine sensing by riboswitches

Structured mRNA elements called riboswitches control gene expression by binding to small metabolites. Over a dozen riboswitch classes have been characterized that target a broad range of molecules and vary widely in size and secondary structure. Four of the known riboswitch classes recognize purines or modified purines. Three of these classes are closely related in conserved sequence and secondary structure, but members of these classes selectively recognize guanine, adenine or 2'-deoxyguanosine. Members of the fourth riboswitch class adopt a distinct structure to form a selective binding pocket for the guanine analogue preQ(1) (7-aminomethyl-7-deazaguanine). All four classes of purine-sensing riboswitches are most likely to recognize their respective metabolites by utilizing a riboswitch residue to make a canonical Watson-Crick base-pair with the ligand. This review will provide a summary of the purine-sensing riboswitches, as well as discuss the complex functions and applications of these RNAs.     

Purine sensing by riboswitches.

Structured mRNA elements called riboswitches control gene expression by binding to small metabolites. Over a dozen riboswitch classes have been characterized that target a broad range of molecules and vary widely in size and secondary structure. Four of the known riboswitch classes recognize purines or modified purines. Three of these classes are closely related in conserved sequence and secondary structure, but members of these classes selectively recognize guanine, adenine or 2'-deoxyguanosine. Members of the fourth riboswitch class adopt a distinct structure to form a selective binding pocket for the guanine analogue preQ(1) (7-aminomethyl-7-deazaguanine). All four classes of purine-sensing riboswitches are most likely to recognize their respective metabolites by utilizing a riboswitch residue to make a canonical Watson-Crick base-pair with the ligand. This review will provide a summary of the purine-sensing riboswitches, as well as discuss the complex functions and applications of these RNAs.     

Engineered riboswitches: Expanding researchers' toolbox with synthetic RNA regulators

Riboswitches are natural RNA-based genetic switches that sense small-molecule metabolites and regulate in response the expression of the corresponding metabolic genes. Within the last years, several engineered riboswitches have been developed that act on various stages of gene expression. These switches can be engineered to respond to any ligand of choice and are therefore of great interest for synthetic biology. In this review, we present an overview of engineered riboswitches and discuss their application in conditional gene expression systems. We will provide structural and mechanistic insights and point out problems and recent trends in the development of engineered riboswitches.